Running events
- Sprints: 100 m, 200 m, 400 m. Crouch start in starting blocks; stay in your lane.
- Middle distance: 800 m, 1500 m. Pace yourself; runners may leave their lanes.
- Long distance: 3000 m, 5000 m, 10 000 m, marathon (42.195 km). Standing start; steady pace.
- Hurdles: 100/110 m and 400 m over barriers. A rhythm of 3 strides between hurdles in the short race.
- Relays: 4 × 100 m and 4 × 400 m. The baton passes inside a 30 m exchange zone.
Average speed = distance ÷ time. A false start (leaving before the gun) leads to disqualification.
Jumping events
Long jump: run, take off from a board, land in sand. Measured from the take-off line to the nearest mark in the sand. Triple jump: hop, step and jump. High jump: clear a bar; most athletes use the Fosbury flop (back over the bar). Pole vault: a flexible pole helps lift you over a high bar.
Four phases: approach (fast, controlled run-up), take-off (powerful push from one foot), flight (keep balance, prepare legs) and landing (safe, without falling back). Overstepping the board is a foul.
Throwing events
Shot put: push (do not throw) a heavy metal ball from the neck, inside a 2.135 m circle. Discus: a spinning throw of a flat disc. Javelin: a run-up and an over-the-shoulder throw of a spear. Hammer: a ball on a wire swung in turns.
Distance depends on release speed (most important), release angle and release height. Because the implement leaves the hand above the ground, the best angle is slightly below 45°, often about 35–42°. Throwers stay inside the circle or behind the arc until it lands, and it must land inside the sector lines. Safety: never walk into the throwing area.
Measuring, rules, training and safety
Athletics is measured performance. Times are taken to 0.01 s with electronic timing (by hand, to 0.1 s). Distances are measured in metres and centimetres with a steel or fibreglass tape. In sprints and horizontal jumps a tail wind over 2.0 m/s means a result cannot count as a record.
To improve: train speed (short fast runs with full rest), technique drills, strength and power (jumps, medicine-ball throws) and endurance for longer races. Always warm up, wear proper shoes and follow throwing-area safety rules.
Key formulas and definitions
- Average speed = distance ÷ time (m/s)
- Time = distance ÷ speed
- Jump phases: approach → take-off → flight → landing
- Throw distance depends on release speed, angle and height
- Range on flat ground (no height, no air) R = v² sin 2θ ÷ g, largest at 45°
Worked examples
1. A student runs 100 m in 12.5 s. Find the average speed.
Speed = 100 ÷ 12.5 = 8 m/s.
2. A runner keeps 5 m/s for 400 m. How long does it take?
Time = 400 ÷ 5 = 80 s (1 min 20 s).
3. A long jumper takes off 15 cm behind the board line and the nearest sand mark is 4.80 m from the line. What is recorded?
The jump is measured from the take-off line, so 4.80 m is recorded; the 15 cm lost behind the line is not added. This is why accurate run-ups matter.
4. Using R = v² sin 2θ ÷ g (g = 9.8 m/s²), how far does a ball released at ground level at 10 m/s and 45° travel?
sin 90° = 1, so R = 100 ÷ 9.8 ≈ 10.2 m. A real shot is released about 2 m up, so it goes a little further and the best angle drops to about 42°.
Common mistakes
- Thinking 45° is always the best throwing angle. When released above the ground, slightly lower is best.
- Measuring a long jump from where the foot left the ground. It is measured from the take-off line.
- Starting the relay too late, so the incoming runner has to slow down. The outgoing runner starts early, on a mark.
- Skipping the warm-up before sprints and jumps. Cold muscles tear easily.