What is international relations?
International relations (IR) is the study of how countries and other actors deal with each other: war and peace, trade, law, the environment and human rights.
- State: a country with people, territory, a government and sovereignty (the final say over its own affairs).
- Since the peace treaties of 1648 in Europe, the idea spread that states are equal and should not interfere in each other's internal matters. After 1945 many colonies became independent states and joined this system.
- There is no world government. IR scholars call this anarchy: not chaos, just no ruler above states.
- Non-state actors also matter: the UN, the World Health Organization, multinational companies, charities (NGOs) and even terror groups.
National interest and foreign policy
National interest = what a state wants: security, economic growth, energy, the safety of its citizens abroad, and respect (status). Foreign policy is the plan to get it. Its tools:
- Diplomacy: talks through ambassadors, summits and embassies.
- Economic tools: trade deals, investment, aid, and sanctions (limiting trade to put pressure).
- Alliances: promises to defend each other.
- Soft power: attraction through culture, films, education, yoga or sport.
- Military force: the last and most costly tool.
Domestic politics shapes foreign policy: elections, the economy and public opinion all matter.
Why conflicts happen
- Resources: water, oil, gas, farmland, minerals.
- Territory: disputed land or sea areas.
- Power and security: the security dilemma: when one state arms to feel safe, its neighbour feels less safe and arms too, so both end up less safe (an arms race).
- Identity: ethnic, religious or national differences, often inside one country (civil war), which can draw in outsiders.
- Ideas and leaders: ideologies, misperception and mistakes.
Today's problems also cross borders: climate change, pandemics, terrorism, refugees and cyber-attacks. No state can solve them alone.
How states cooperate
States cooperate when all sides gain more than they lose.
- Treaties: written agreements, for example on trade, arms control, rivers or climate (the 2015 Paris Agreement).
- International law: rules states accept, such as the law of the sea and human-rights law. Courts like the International Court of Justice settle some disputes.
- International organisations: the United Nations (193 member states) for peace and development; the World Trade Organization for trade rules; the WHO for health.
- Regional organisations: the European Union (shared market and some shared laws), the African Union, ASEAN, SAARC.
Interdependence: when countries trade a lot, war becomes costly for both, which can encourage peace.
Theories: realism and liberalism
| Realism | Liberalism | |
|---|---|---|
| Main actor | States | States plus organisations, firms, people |
| Main goal | Power and survival | Wealth, welfare, cooperation |
| Keeps peace by | Balance of power, alliances, deterrence | Trade, law, institutions, democracy |
| View of the world | Competitive | Can become cooperative |
Other views: constructivism says shared ideas and identities shape how states act.
A changing world order and peace
After 1945 the world was bipolar (two superpowers in the Cold War). After 1991 one superpower led (unipolar). Today power is spread among several centres such as the USA, China, the EU, India and others: a multipolar world.
Ways to resolve conflict: negotiation (direct talks), mediation (a neutral helper), arbitration or courts, sanctions, and UN peacekeeping (India is one of the largest contributors of peacekeepers). Lasting peace also needs justice, development and reconciliation. As global citizens we can learn about others, reject hate and support fair solutions.
Key formulas and definitions
- State = people + territory + government + sovereignty
- Anarchy (IR) = no world government above states
- Security dilemma: A arms → B feels unsafe → B arms → both less safe
- Foreign policy tools: diplomacy, economic tools, alliances, soft power, force
- Realism = power and security; liberalism = cooperation and institutions
- Bipolar → unipolar → multipolar
Worked examples
1. Two neighbouring countries share a river. One plans a large dam upstream. Show how conflict or cooperation could follow.
Conflict: the downstream country fears less water (resource clash), protests and may build up forces; mistrust grows. Cooperation: they sign a water-sharing treaty, set up a joint commission to share data, and the upstream country sells electricity from the dam to the downstream one. Both gain.
2. Country X increases its army to feel safe. Explain why this might make X less safe.
Neighbour Y cannot be sure of X's intentions, so Y also increases its army. Now X faces a stronger Y. Both spend more and both feel threatened: the security dilemma.
3. How would a realist and a liberal explain peace between two trading partners?
Realist: they are at peace because neither is strong enough to win easily (balance of power) or they share an enemy. Liberal: they are at peace because trade makes war costly, and shared institutions and laws let them settle disputes peacefully.
4. A civil war causes a million refugees to cross into neighbouring states. Why does this become an international issue?
Neighbours must house and feed refugees, which strains budgets and may cause tension. Armed groups may cross too. The UN refugee agency, donors and regional organisations get involved, so a domestic conflict becomes international.
Common mistakes
- Thinking "anarchy" in IR means chaos. It only means there is no world government.
- Thinking the UN is a world government. It cannot pass laws for countries; it depends on members agreeing.
- Thinking foreign policy is only about war. Most of it is diplomacy, trade and cooperation.
- Thinking realism and liberalism are about left-wing or right-wing politics at home. They are theories about how states behave internationally.