South 중학교 3학년 Social Studies ②

Chapters: 12

1. Human rights and the constitution

Why human rights matter · Rights violations and remedies · Workers' rights

Human Rights: Meaning, History, Types and Protection – Human rights are the basic freedoms and protections that belong to every person because they are human. They are universal, inalienable, indivisible and rooted in dignity. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) set a common standard, later made binding through treaties. Rights are protected by constitutions, courts, commissions, the UN and civil society, and they can be limited only by fair laws that protect others.
Employment Law: The Rules of Working for Someone – Employment law is the set of rules for the relationship between an employer and an employee. An employment contract exists when a person does work, for pay, under the employer's direction (subordination). Contracts may be permanent, fixed-term, temporary through an agency, part-time or telework; a civil-law or freelance contract is not employment. Employees have rights (at least the minimum wage, limited hours, rest and paid leave, a safe workplace, equal treatment, freedom from harassment) and duties (careful work, following lawful instructions, loyalty, safety rules). Employers can organise work and discipline, within the law. Pay is gross before tax and social insurance and net after; the employer's total cost is higher. Trade unions negotiate collective agreements. A contract ends by resignation, dismissal with a valid reason and fair procedure, mutual agreement or the end of a fixed term.

2. Constitution and state organs

National Assembly · The president and executive · Courts and the Constitutional Court

Systems of Government: Branches, Checks and Balances – Every modern state divides power among three branches: the legislature makes laws, the executive carries them out and the judiciary interprets them. Checks and balances let each branch limit the others. Democracies arrange the legislature and executive in different ways. In a parliamentary system the government comes from parliament and must keep its confidence (UK, India, Germany). In a presidential system people elect the president and the legislature separately for fixed terms (USA, Brazil). A semi-presidential system shares power between an elected president and a prime minister who answers to parliament (France). Other forms include monarchies and Switzerland's committee system.
Judiciary: Courts and Judicial Power – The judiciary is the system of courts that settles disputes and punishes crimes by applying the law. It is one of the three branches of power, next to the legislature and the executive, and must be independent so judges obey only the law. Courts form levels: first-instance courts, appeal courts and a supreme court. A constitutional court or the supreme court can cancel laws that break the constitution (judicial review). Courts follow fair-trial rules such as equality before the law and the presumption of innocence.

3. Economic life and choice

Scarcity and choice · Firms in a market economy · Life-cycle finance

The Problem of Choice: Scarcity and Opportunity Cost – Our wants are unlimited but resources like money, time, land and workers are limited. This is scarcity, and it forces us to choose. The value of the next best option we give up is the opportunity cost. Economists study how people and societies make these choices. Every society must decide what, how and for whom to produce. Market, planned and mixed economies answer these differently, and a welfare state makes sure basic needs of all are met.
From Ideas to Startups: Entrepreneurship – An entrepreneur turns an idea into a business by bringing together land, labour and capital and taking the risk. New ideas replace old ways, which economists call creative destruction. Startups grow with help from investors, banks, incubators, government schemes such as Startup India and Make in India, and small firms called MSMEs. A business plan maps the idea, costs and customers. The profit and loss statement shows Sales − Costs, and the balance sheet shows Assets = Liabilities + Capital.
Smart Ways to Manage Your Finances – Inflation makes prices rise, so the same money buys less. Money kept in a bank earns interest: simple interest is paid only on the original amount, while compound interest also earns interest on earlier interest, so it grows faster over time. A budget plans income into needs, wants and savings. Savings are kept safe; investments can grow but carry risk, and higher possible returns mean higher risk. Insurance shares risk among many people. Income tax is paid on income above a limit, at rates that rise with income.

4. Market economy and prices

Markets · Demand and supply laws · Shifts in demand and supply

Markets: Meaning, Types and Forms – A market is any arrangement where buyers and sellers meet to swap goods, services or assets for money. It may be a street bazaar, a website or a phone call. Price is set by the pull of demand and the push of supply. Markets are grouped by place, time, size of deal, level of competition and by what is traded: goods, labour, money, capital and foreign exchange. Together, trade between countries forms the world market.
Demand, Supply and Market Equilibrium – The law of demand says buyers want less when the price rises; the law of supply says sellers offer more. The market price settles at equilibrium, where quantity demanded equals quantity supplied, and shifts in demand or supply move it. Some goods break the usual laws (Giffen, Veblen, panic buying). A price ceiling set below equilibrium causes shortages. Markets can also fail, for example with pollution or public goods like street lights, so the government steps in.

5. National economy and international trade

GDP and growth · Inflation and unemployment · International trade and exchange rates

Inflation: Why Prices Keep Rising – Inflation is a general, continuing rise in the price level, which lowers the purchasing power of money. It is measured with a price index such as the CPI: inflation rate = (new index − old index) ÷ old index × 100. Causes: demand-pull (demand grows faster than output), cost-push (costs rise) and expectations. Effects hit savers, fixed incomes and competitiveness. Deflation is a falling price level. Central banks aim for low, stable inflation, often about 2%, using interest rates; governments also use fiscal and supply-side policies.
Exchange Rates: Converting Money Between Currencies – A currency is the money used in a country or group of countries. An exchange rate is the price of one currency in terms of another, for example 1 USD = 83 INR. To convert into the second currency, multiply by the rate; to convert back, divide. Banks and money changers sell foreign currency at a higher rate and buy it at a lower rate, and may charge commission, so each swap costs you a little. Rates change with demand and supply. When a currency appreciates it buys more foreign money: imports get cheaper and exports dearer. When it depreciates, the opposite happens. People and firms gain or lose when rates move between buying and selling.

6. International society and politics

Features of international society · Competition and cooperation · Korea's international issues

International Relations: How States Deal with Each Other – International relations (IR) studies how states and other actors (international organisations, companies, NGOs) interact. States are sovereign and there is no world government, so each state follows its national interest through foreign policy: diplomacy, trade, aid, alliances and, at worst, force. Conflicts arise from clashing interests over territory, resources, power and identity, and from the security dilemma. Cooperation grows through mutual gain, treaties, international law and organisations. Realism stresses power and security; liberalism stresses cooperation, trade and institutions. Peace is built by negotiation, mediation, peacekeeping and justice.

7. Population change

Population distribution · Migration · Population problems

The World Population: Distribution, Density and Growth – People are not spread evenly on Earth. Most live on fertile plains near water; few live in deserts, high mountains or icy lands. Density tells how many people live on each square km. Geographical, economic and social factors explain the pattern. The world grew slowly for thousands of years and then very fast after 1800. Population changes through births, deaths and migration. The demographic transition theory shows how birth and death rates fall as a society moves from rural farming to urban industry. Countries use family planning and health care to control growth.
Migration – Migration is the movement of people from one place to another to live there, for some time or for good. The place left is the origin; the place reached is the destination. People move because of push factors (problems at home) and pull factors (attractions elsewhere), but obstacles like cost, distance and laws stop some. Migration can be internal or international, temporary or permanent, voluntary or forced, and it changes both the origin and the destination.

8. Cities

Attractive cities · Urban structure · Urbanisation in developed and developing countries · Liveable cities

Urbanisation: Why Cities Grow and How to Make Them Work – Urbanisation is the rise in the share of a country's or the world's people who live in towns and cities. In 1950 about 30% of the world was urban; since 2007 more than half is, and about 68% is expected by 2050. Cities grow by rural–urban migration (push factors from the countryside, pull factors to the city) and by natural increase. Today the fastest growth is in lower-income and newly emerging countries of Asia and Africa, where megacities of 10 million or more are forming; in many rich countries growth is slow and people also move out to suburbs (suburbanisation and counter-urbanisation). Fast growth brings opportunities (jobs, services) and problems (informal housing, traffic, pollution, waste, flooding, the urban heat island). Sustainable urban development tries to fix these with public transport, green spaces, clean water, recycling, affordable housing and renewable energy.
Urban Planning and the Quality of Urban Life – Urban planning means deciding in advance how land in a town or city will be used, where roads, homes, jobs, parks and services go, and how the place will grow. Without planning, cities sprawl over farmland, traffic jams grow and slums lack water and drains. Planners use land-use zoning, public transport, the right density and green space to raise the quality of life. They measure it with factors such as housing, jobs, clean air, services, transport and safety. Modern ideas include the liveable city, the 15-minute neighbourhood, smart cities and city branding. Villages and small towns are planned too, as a shared social task.

9. Global economy and regional change

Globalised agriculture · Multinational firms · Services in a global age

Globalisation and Global Governance – Globalisation is the growth of flows of goods, capital, information and labour that tie places together. Technology, transport and trade deals drive it. The flows are unequal: rich economies hold more power, poorer ones have weaker market access. TNCs spread production of one product across many places. Agencies like the UN, WTO, IMF and World Bank try to govern these flows, and treaties protect global commons such as Antarctica. Globalisation brings growth and cheaper goods but also inequality, conflict and environmental harm.

10. Environmental problems and sustainability

Global environmental problems · Relocating polluting industries · Everyday environmental issues

Climate Change and the Greenhouse Effect – Climate is the average weather of a place over about 30 years. Greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane trap some of the heat the Earth gives off. Humans have added a lot more of these gases by burning fossil fuels and cutting forests, so the Earth is warming. This causes melting ice, rising seas and more extreme weather. We can cut emissions (mitigation) and prepare for changes (adaptation).
Sustainability – Sustainability means meeting our needs today without taking away the ability of future people to meet theirs. It rests on three pillars — environment, society and economy. A resource is used sustainably when we use it no faster than it renews. Today humanity uses about 1.7 Earths' worth of resources a year, and this use is very unequal. Stewardship, careful planning and spatial tools like GIS help us move towards sustainability.

11. Korea's regions

Strengths of Korea's regions · Korea's location in the world

Regional Geography: How We Divide the World into Regions – A region is an area that shares one or more features, which makes it different from the areas around it. Formal (uniform) regions are alike inside, like a plain or a rice-growing belt. Functional (nodal) regions are held together by links to a centre, like a city and the villages that travel to it. Perceptual regions exist in people's minds. Region edges are usually transition zones, and regions depend on each other through flows of people, goods, water and ideas.

12. Living together in the world

Global issues on maps · Development gaps · Reducing inequality

Global Citizenship – A global citizen belongs to local, national and world communities at the same time. The world is interconnected, and problems such as poverty, hunger, conflict and climate change are shared. Global citizens know their rights and duties, care about people far away, reduce their ecological footprint, and act locally while thinking globally.
Development Geography: Why Places Are Rich or Poor – Development means people living better lives: more income, better health, more schooling and more freedom. We measure it with indicators such as GNI per person, life expectancy and years at school, and with the Human Development Index (HDI, 0 to 1), which joins all three. Development is uneven: rich cores and poorer peripheries exist between world regions and inside one country. Where rich and poor areas touch, there are strong contrasts and flows of workers, goods, factories and money, with both good and bad effects. There is no single model of development: countries have grown through export factories, services, or mines and farming, each with risks.
Global Justice: Fair Trade, Aid and Reducing Inequality – Global justice asks what is fair between countries and between people across the world. Incomes are very unequal. Fair trade gives producers a fair price, and development aid (ODA) helps poorer countries build schools, health and jobs. Real justice also needs peace, honest rules and a say for poorer countries.