National Year 12 Politics
Chapters: 2
1. 3.1.1 The government of the UK
The nature and sources of the British Constitution · The structure and role of Parliament · The Prime Minister and cabinet · The judiciary · Devolution
- Constitution: Why and How? – A constitution is the basic rulebook of a country. It builds trust, says who holds power, limits that power, and states the people's hopes. India's Constitution was written by the Constituent Assembly from 1946 to 1949 through open debate, and it took good ideas from other constitutions, changing them to suit India.
- Legislature – Parliament is where elected representatives make laws, debate issues, pass the budget and keep the government answerable. India's Parliament has two houses: the Lok Sabha, elected by the people, and the Rajya Sabha, which represents the states. A bill passes through readings, committee study and votes in both houses before the President signs it. Committees do detailed work, and rules like the anti-defection law keep Parliament disciplined.
- Executive – The executive is the part of government that puts laws and policies into action. Countries have presidential, parliamentary or semi-presidential executives. India has a parliamentary executive: the President is the formal head, while the Prime Minister and council of ministers hold real power and stay only while the Lok Sabha supports them. Civil servants (the bureaucracy) form the permanent executive.
- Judiciary – The judiciary settles disputes and protects the Constitution and our rights. To do this fairly it must be independent of the government and Parliament. India has one integrated court system with the Supreme Court at the top. The Supreme Court has original, writ, appellate and advisory jurisdiction. Through judicial review and Public Interest Litigation, courts protect rights, though they must balance this with the roles of the other organs.
- Devolution: Passing Power Down – Devolution is when a central parliament passes some of its powers down to regional or local bodies, while keeping the final legal authority (sovereignty) for itself. It is different from federalism, where a written constitution shares power and the centre cannot simply take it back. The UK is the best-known example: since 1999 Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have their own elected bodies with devolved powers such as health and education, while defence, foreign policy and immigration stay reserved to Westminster. Devolution is asymmetric: each nation has different powers and England has no parliament of its own, only mayors and councils. It has brought policy differences, debates about English votes, and questions about the future of the Union.
2. 3.1.2 The politics of the UK
Democracy and participation · Elections and referendums · Political parties · Pressure groups · The European Union
- Democracy: Principles, Elections and Checks on Power – Democracy means the people hold the final power. It rests on a few principles: political equality, majority rule with minority rights, the rule of law, free and fair elections, and limits on power. People can decide directly (referendums) or through elected representatives. The voting rule (FPTP or proportional representation) changes who wins seats. A constitution splits power between the legislature, executive and judiciary so each can check the others. Citizens keep working between elections through media, pressure groups, courts, petitions and protest, and good policy is judged by clear evidence.
- Election and Representation – In a big democracy people choose representatives through elections. India uses First Past the Post (FPTP): in each constituency the candidate with the most votes wins. Some seats are reserved for SC and ST candidates. An independent Election Commission runs free and fair elections, and reforms keep trying to make them cleaner and fairer.
- Political Parties – A political party is a group of people who come together to contest elections and hold power. Parties do seven key jobs, from contesting elections to linking people with government schemes. India has a multi-party system with national and state parties. Parties face challenges like lack of internal democracy and money power, and some reforms have been made.
- Pressure Groups – A pressure group is an organised group of people who share an aim and try to influence government policy without standing for election. Interest (sectional) groups speak for their own members; cause (promotional) groups fight for an idea that benefits wider society. Insider groups are consulted by government; outsider groups work from outside using protest and media. Groups use lobbying, campaigns, petitions, direct action and court cases. Lobbyists, think tanks, corporations and the media also influence government. Pluralists say groups spread power and strengthen democracy; elitists say rich, well-connected groups dominate.
- International Relations: How States Deal with Each Other – International relations (IR) studies how states and other actors (international organisations, companies, NGOs) interact. States are sovereign and there is no world government, so each state follows its national interest through foreign policy: diplomacy, trade, aid, alliances and, at worst, force. Conflicts arise from clashing interests over territory, resources, power and identity, and from the security dilemma. Cooperation grows through mutual gain, treaties, international law and organisations. Realism stresses power and security; liberalism stresses cooperation, trade and institutions. Peace is built by negotiation, mediation, peacekeeping and justice.