Principles of democracy
Democracy means rule by the people. The word comes from Greek: demos (people) and kratos (power).
- Popular sovereignty: the final power belongs to the people, not to a king or one party.
- Political equality: one person, one vote, and each vote has the same weight.
- Majority rule, minority rights: the larger group decides, but it cannot take away the basic rights of smaller groups.
- Rule of law: everyone, even the leader, must obey the same laws.
- Free and fair elections: regular, secret ballot, real choice between parties.
- Accountability: leaders must explain their actions and can be voted out.
Civic virtues are habits that keep a democracy healthy: being informed, tolerant, honest, respecting other views and taking part.
Direct and representative democracy
In direct democracy citizens make decisions themselves. Ancient Athens did this in an assembly. Today it happens through referendums (a yes/no vote on a question), initiatives (citizens collect signatures to propose a law) and recall (voting an official out early).
In representative democracy people elect representatives to a parliament or congress. This works for large countries where millions of people cannot meet.
| Strengths | Weaknesses | |
|---|---|---|
| Direct | Clear voice of the people, high legitimacy | Complex issues made into yes/no; low turnout; majority can ignore minorities |
| Representative | Experts debate details; works for big countries | Representatives may ignore voters between elections |
Participation includes voting, joining parties or groups, petitions, contacting representatives, volunteering and peaceful protest. People bring their own interests and views; democracy needs a way to weigh them fairly.
Electoral systems: FPTP and proportional representation
First past the post (FPTP)
The country is split into constituencies. In each one, the candidate with the most votes wins, even with less than half. Used for the Lok Sabha in India, the UK House of Commons and the US House.
- Plus: simple, strong link between an MP and an area, often a clear winner.
- Minus: seats may not match votes; small parties lose out; many votes are "wasted".
Proportional representation (PR)
Seats are shared in proportion to votes. 30% of votes ≈ 30% of seats. Used in many European countries and South Africa. Mixed systems (Germany, New Zealand) combine both.
- Plus: fairer match of votes and seats; more voices.
- Minus: often coalition governments; weaker local link.
How decisions are made
Groups decide by majority vote, consensus (everyone agrees) or supermajority (e.g. two-thirds to change a constitution). Deliberation means discussing reasons and evidence before voting.
Constitutions, separation of powers and the rule of law
A constitution is the highest law. It sets up the institutions, lists rights and limits power. Ordinary laws must follow it. Treaties are agreements between countries.
- Legislature (parliament/congress): makes laws, approves taxes and spending.
- Executive (president or prime minister and ministers): runs the government and applies laws.
- Judiciary (courts): explains laws and settles disputes.
Checks and balances: the legislature can question or remove the executive; the executive can propose or veto laws (in presidential systems); courts can strike down laws that break the constitution (judicial review). The US Constitution, for example, splits power and adds a Bill of Rights; India's Constitution adds Fundamental Rights and an independent Supreme Court.
Laws can be challenged in court, changed by the legislature, or changed by constitutional amendment.
Civil society, markets and public policy
Civil society is everything between the family and the state: NGOs, unions, religious groups, clubs and a free media. Pressure groups try to change policy without standing for election. Markets (businesses and buyers) also solve some problems; government steps in when markets fail, for example with pollution rules.
Evaluating a public policy
- What problem does it solve?
- Is it effective (does it work, by evidence)?
- Is it efficient (benefits greater than costs)?
- Is it fair (who gains, who pays)?
- Does it respect rights and the constitution?
Ways to change society: voting, campaigns, petitions, lawsuits, boycotts, peaceful protest and volunteering, all aimed at the common good.
Try it: run a class referendum and an election
Ask 20 classmates or family members to choose between three snacks. First count the result like FPTP in groups of 4 (winner of each group gets a "seat"). Then share 5 seats in proportion to total votes. Do the two methods give the same winner? Then use the slider in the 3D to test more cases.
Key formulas and definitions
- Democracy = rule by the people (demos + kratos)
- FPTP: most votes in a constituency wins the seat
- PR: seats ≈ (party votes ÷ total votes) × total seats
- Separation of powers: legislature (makes), executive (runs), judiciary (checks)
- Rule of law: no one is above the law
- Civil society: groups between family and state
Worked examples
1. A party gets 30% of votes in a 20-seat PR parliament. About how many seats does it win?
Seats ≈ 30/100 × 20 = 6 seats.
2. In one constituency, A gets 38%, B 35%, C 27% of votes. Who wins under FPTP, and did the winner get a majority?
A wins with the most votes (38%). It is not a majority, because 38% is less than 50%. 62% of voters chose someone else.
3. A court cancels a law because it breaks a fundamental right. Which principle and check is this?
Rule of law and constitutionalism, through judicial review: the judiciary checks the legislature.
4. A city plans free bus travel for students. Give two questions to evaluate this policy.
Is it effective (do more students reach school, is traffic lower)? Is it efficient and fair (what does it cost, and who pays for it)?
Common mistakes
- Thinking majority rule means the majority can do anything. Minority rights are protected by the constitution.
- Saying the FPTP winner always has more than half the votes. They only need more than any other candidate.
- Mixing up the executive and the legislature. The legislature makes laws; the executive carries them out.
- Believing democracy is only about voting. Rule of law, free media, courts and civil society matter every day.