National Year 13 Politics

Chapters: 4

1. 3.2.1 Government and politics of the USA

The constitutional framework of US government · The legislative branch of government: Congress · The executive branch of government: President · The judicial branch of government · The electoral process and direct democracy · Political parties · Pressure groups · Civil rights

Constitution: Why and How? – A constitution is the basic rulebook of a country. It builds trust, says who holds power, limits that power, and states the people's hopes. India's Constitution was written by the Constituent Assembly from 1946 to 1949 through open debate, and it took good ideas from other constitutions, changing them to suit India.
Legislature – Parliament is where elected representatives make laws, debate issues, pass the budget and keep the government answerable. India's Parliament has two houses: the Lok Sabha, elected by the people, and the Rajya Sabha, which represents the states. A bill passes through readings, committee study and votes in both houses before the President signs it. Committees do detailed work, and rules like the anti-defection law keep Parliament disciplined.
Executive Power: Presidents, Prime Ministers and the Limits on Them – The executive is the branch that carries out laws and runs the country day to day. In a presidential system (e.g. the USA) an elected president heads it, separate from the legislature. In a parliamentary system (e.g. the UK, India) a prime minister and cabinet come from the legislature and must keep its support. A president has formal powers written in the constitution (veto, commander-in-chief, treaties, appointments, pardons), inherent powers claimed from the role, and informal powers (persuasion, party leadership, mandate). Legislatures and courts check this power. When power grows too big we speak of an imperial presidency; when it is too limited, an imperilled presidency.
Supreme Courts: Judicial Review, Activism, Restraint and Independence – A supreme court is the highest court. In countries with a codified, sovereign constitution (e.g. the USA, India) it can strike down laws and actions that break the constitution: judicial review. Judges differ in how they read the text: strict constructionists stick closely to the words and original meaning; loose constructionists read it as a living document. Judicial activism means boldly using these powers; judicial restraint means leaving choices to elected bodies. In the US, justices are nominated by the President, confirmed by the Senate and serve for life, so appointments are political. The UK Supreme Court (since 2009) is independent but, under parliamentary sovereignty, cannot strike down Acts of Parliament.
Democracy: Principles, Elections and Checks on Power – Democracy means the people hold the final power. It rests on a few principles: political equality, majority rule with minority rights, the rule of law, free and fair elections, and limits on power. People can decide directly (referendums) or through elected representatives. The voting rule (FPTP or proportional representation) changes who wins seats. A constitution splits power between the legislature, executive and judiciary so each can check the others. Citizens keep working between elections through media, pressure groups, courts, petitions and protest, and good policy is judged by clear evidence.
Political Parties: Ideology, Organisation, Factions and Third Parties – A political party is a group of people who share ideas and try to win power through elections. Each party has an ideology: a set of core values about the economy, society and the role of the state. Parties have a structure, from national leaders down to local members. Inside one party there are factions that compete over policy and leadership. Parties go through decline and renewal as support falls and rises. Big parties face third parties and independent candidates, who rarely win under first-past-the-post but can change results by pulling votes away.
Pressure Groups – A pressure group is an organised group of people who share an aim and try to influence government policy without standing for election. Interest (sectional) groups speak for their own members; cause (promotional) groups fight for an idea that benefits wider society. Insider groups are consulted by government; outsider groups work from outside using protest and media. Groups use lobbying, campaigns, petitions, direct action and court cases. Lobbyists, think tanks, corporations and the media also influence government. Pluralists say groups spread power and strengthen democracy; elitists say rich, well-connected groups dominate.
Human Rights: Meaning, History, Types and Protection – Human rights are the basic freedoms and protections that belong to every person because they are human. They are universal, inalienable, indivisible and rooted in dignity. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) set a common standard, later made binding through treaties. Rights are protected by constitutions, courts, commissions, the UN and civil society, and they can be limited only by fair laws that protect others.

2. 3.2.2 Comparative politics (UK and USA)

Constitutional arrangements · The executives · The judiciaries · Electoral and party systems · Pressure groups · Civil Rights

Constitution: Why and How? – A constitution is the basic rulebook of a country. It builds trust, says who holds power, limits that power, and states the people's hopes. India's Constitution was written by the Constituent Assembly from 1946 to 1949 through open debate, and it took good ideas from other constitutions, changing them to suit India.
Executive Power: Presidents, Prime Ministers and the Limits on Them – The executive is the branch that carries out laws and runs the country day to day. In a presidential system (e.g. the USA) an elected president heads it, separate from the legislature. In a parliamentary system (e.g. the UK, India) a prime minister and cabinet come from the legislature and must keep its support. A president has formal powers written in the constitution (veto, commander-in-chief, treaties, appointments, pardons), inherent powers claimed from the role, and informal powers (persuasion, party leadership, mandate). Legislatures and courts check this power. When power grows too big we speak of an imperial presidency; when it is too limited, an imperilled presidency.
Supreme Courts: Judicial Review, Activism, Restraint and Independence – A supreme court is the highest court. In countries with a codified, sovereign constitution (e.g. the USA, India) it can strike down laws and actions that break the constitution: judicial review. Judges differ in how they read the text: strict constructionists stick closely to the words and original meaning; loose constructionists read it as a living document. Judicial activism means boldly using these powers; judicial restraint means leaving choices to elected bodies. In the US, justices are nominated by the President, confirmed by the Senate and serve for life, so appointments are political. The UK Supreme Court (since 2009) is independent but, under parliamentary sovereignty, cannot strike down Acts of Parliament.
Electoral and Party Systems: How Voting Rules Shape Parties – An electoral system is the rule that turns votes into seats. First-past-the-post (FPTP) gives each seat to whoever comes first in an area. A winner-take-all electoral college gives all of a state's votes to the state winner. Proportional systems (party list PR, STV) and mixed systems (AMS) share seats closer to vote shares. These rules shape the party system: FPTP tends to produce two big parties (Duverger's law), while PR helps many parties and coalitions. Third parties are squeezed by wasted-vote fears and tactical voting. Campaign finance sparks debate between fairness and free speech. Parties also differ in how united they are inside.
Pressure Groups – A pressure group is an organised group of people who share an aim and try to influence government policy without standing for election. Interest (sectional) groups speak for their own members; cause (promotional) groups fight for an idea that benefits wider society. Insider groups are consulted by government; outsider groups work from outside using protest and media. Groups use lobbying, campaigns, petitions, direct action and court cases. Lobbyists, think tanks, corporations and the media also influence government. Pluralists say groups spread power and strengthen democracy; elitists say rich, well-connected groups dominate.
Human Rights: Meaning, History, Types and Protection – Human rights are the basic freedoms and protections that belong to every person because they are human. They are universal, inalienable, indivisible and rooted in dignity. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) set a common standard, later made binding through treaties. Rights are protected by constitutions, courts, commissions, the UN and civil society, and they can be limited only by fair laws that protect others.

3. 3.3.1 Core ideologies

Liberalism · Conservatism · Socialism

Political Ideology: How People Answer the Big Questions of Politics – A political ideology is a connected set of ideas about people, society and the state, plus a plan to keep or change society. People pick up political ideas through political socialisation (family, school, friends, media, events). The words left and right come from seating in the French assembly of 1789. Core ideologies are liberalism (individual freedom and rights), conservatism (tradition, order, careful change) and socialism (equality and shared wealth). Others include feminism, ecologism, anarchism, multiculturalism and nationalism. A two-axis model (economy and freedom vs authority) shows positions better than one line. Ideologies shape party programmes, economic and social policy, and can be measured through opinion polls.

4. 3.3.2 Other ideologies (choose one)

Nationalism · Feminism · Multiculturalism · Anarchism · Ecologism

Nationalism: Nations, Self-Determination and Pluralism – Nationalism is a powerful force: it has united small states, inspired freedom struggles like India's, and also broken empires and caused conflict. A nation is not a physical thing; it is a community that exists because its members believe they belong together. Nations are built on shared belief, a shared sense of history, attachment to a homeland, shared political ideals and a common political identity; a single religion or language is not required. National self-determination is a group's claim to govern itself; it created many new states after colonialism, but one state for every group is impossible, so today it is often met through rights and autonomy within democratic states. Nationalism and pluralism can go together when a nation respects the identities of all groups and protects minorities.
Political Ideology: How People Answer the Big Questions of Politics – A political ideology is a connected set of ideas about people, society and the state, plus a plan to keep or change society. People pick up political ideas through political socialisation (family, school, friends, media, events). The words left and right come from seating in the French assembly of 1789. Core ideologies are liberalism (individual freedom and rights), conservatism (tradition, order, careful change) and socialism (equality and shared wealth). Others include feminism, ecologism, anarchism, multiculturalism and nationalism. A two-axis model (economy and freedom vs authority) shows positions better than one line. Ideologies shape party programmes, economic and social policy, and can be measured through opinion polls.