South 고등학교 3학년 Ethics and Thought
Chapters: 4
1. Humans and ethical thought
Views of human nature · Why study ethical thought
- Human Nature: Are We Born Good, Selfish or Blank? – Human nature means the qualities all humans share from birth. Thinkers have given three classic answers. Born good: Mencius (China) saw inborn 'sprouts' of kindness, shame, respect and right judgement that grow with care; Rousseau (France) said people are naturally good but corrupted by unequal society. Born selfish: Xunzi (China) said human nature is self-seeking and goodness comes from deliberate effort, rules and study; Hobbes (England) said that without government life would be a war of all against all. Born blank: Locke (England) said the mind is a blank slate (tabula rasa) written by experience; Gaozi said nature is like water that can flow either way. Many modern views are mixed: we have both caring and selfish tendencies, and environment matters a lot. All views accept that humans are imperfect and unfinished, so we can learn and grow. This leads to the question of the meaning of life: thinkers have found it in virtue and flourishing (Aristotle, Confucius), in love and service, in faith, or in meaning we create ourselves (Frankl, Sartre, Camus).
- Ethics: How to Decide What Is Right – Ethics (moral philosophy) asks what we ought to do and why. Values such as honesty, kindness, fairness and respect guide choices. Three main theories help: consequences (utilitarianism, Bentham and Mill: most good for most people), duty (Kant: act on rules you could want everyone to follow; treat people as ends, never only as means) and virtue (Aristotle: build good character; virtue is the mean between extremes). Conscience is our inner sense of right and wrong. Freedom brings responsibility. Meta-ethics asks what "good" means and whether values are universal or relative. Applied ethics deals with the environment, animals, work, friendship and peace.
2. Eastern and Korean thought
Roots of Korean ethics · Classical Confucianism · Yi Hwang and Yi I · Early Buddhism · Korean Buddhism · Laozi and Zhuangzi · Thought in modern upheaval
- Confucianism – Confucianism is a way of living taught by Confucius (about 551–479 BCE, China). Its heart is ren (kindness toward others) and li (respectful behaviour). People grow good by practising these in five key relationships: ruler and citizen, parent and child, spouses, elders and youngers, and friends. Mencius said human nature is born good, like a sprout; Xunzi said it needs shaping by learning and rules. Neo-Confucianism (about 11th–12th century) joined these ideas with a theory of the universe and self-improvement.
- Taoism (Daoism) – Taoism is an old Chinese way of thinking about living in harmony with the Dao, 'the Way' of nature. Laozi (the Tao Te Ching) taught softness, simplicity and wu wei, acting without forcing. Zhuangzi added stories showing that ideas like big and small, good and bad depend on your point of view, so we should be free and flexible. Yin and yang show how opposites balance each other. Today wu wei is read as working with nature and with our own limits instead of fighting them.
3. Western ethical thought
Origins: Sophists and Socrates · Plato · Aristotle, Epicureans, Stoics · Christian ethics · Reason and sentiment · Kant and utilitarianism · Existentialism and pragmatism
- Virtue Ethics: Becoming a Good Person – Virtue ethics asks "What kind of person should I be?" rather than only "Which rule should I follow?". An action has an intention, means, the act and consequences. Socrates taught that virtue is knowledge. Plato linked the three parts of the soul (reason, spirit, desire) to four cardinal virtues: wisdom, courage, moderation and justice. Aristotle said every aim points to a final end, eudaimonia (living well), and that each moral virtue is a golden mean between two vices, learned by habit and guided by practical wisdom.
- Ethics: How to Decide What Is Right – Ethics (moral philosophy) asks what we ought to do and why. Values such as honesty, kindness, fairness and respect guide choices. Three main theories help: consequences (utilitarianism, Bentham and Mill: most good for most people), duty (Kant: act on rules you could want everyone to follow; treat people as ends, never only as means) and virtue (Aristotle: build good character; virtue is the mean between extremes). Conscience is our inner sense of right and wrong. Freedom brings responsibility. Meta-ethics asks what "good" means and whether values are universal or relative. Applied ethics deals with the environment, animals, work, friendship and peace.
- Existentialism: You Are What You Choose – Existentialism is a 19th–20th century way of thinking about human life. Its main idea: for a person, existence comes before essence. A tool is designed for a purpose first; a human is born first and then makes a self through choices. So we are free, and with freedom comes anxiety and full responsibility. Jaspers showed that limit situations (death, suffering, struggle, guilt) wake us up to ask what matters. Hiding behind the crowd or fate is bad faith; owning one's choices is authenticity. Key thinkers: Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Heidegger, Jaspers, Sartre, de Beauvoir, Camus; in Spanish thought Unamuno and Ortega y Gasset.
4. Social thought
Ideal societies · The state · Individual and community · Democracy · Capitalism and socialism · Peace thought
- Political Philosophy: The State, Power and Justice – Political philosophy asks big questions about living together: Why do we need a state? What makes power rightful (legitimate)? What is justice? How much freedom and equality should people have? Social contract thinkers (Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau) explain the state as an agreement. Plato and Aristotle described the ideal state and the forms of government; Cicero saw the republic as the people's shared property under law. Rawls, Mill and thinkers from many traditions (Confucius, Kautilya, Ubuntu) help us weigh liberty, equality, property and community.
- Democracy: Principles, Elections and Checks on Power – Democracy means the people hold the final power. It rests on a few principles: political equality, majority rule with minority rights, the rule of law, free and fair elections, and limits on power. People can decide directly (referendums) or through elected representatives. The voting rule (FPTP or proportional representation) changes who wins seats. A constitution splits power between the legislature, executive and judiciary so each can check the others. Citizens keep working between elections through media, pressure groups, courts, petitions and protest, and good policy is judged by clear evidence.
- Economic Systems: Who Decides What, How and for Whom? – Every society has limited resources and must decide what to produce, how to produce it and for whom. A traditional economy answers by custom, a market economy by prices and private choice, and a command (planned) economy by a government plan. Capitalism is built on private ownership and markets; socialism on shared or state ownership and planning. Real countries are mixed economies: markets make most goods while the government provides public services, rules and support.
- Peace Education: How People Build Lasting Peace – Peace is more than 'no war'. Negative peace means no fighting. Positive peace means fairness, trust and a good life for all. Violence can be direct (hitting, war), structural (unfair rules that keep people poor) or cultural (ideas that make harm look normal). Thinkers gave us tools: Mozi taught equal care for all and opposed attacking wars; Kant said fair governments, a league of free states and kindness to visitors can make peace last; Gandhi showed non-violent resistance. Conflicts are solved step by step: cool down, listen, find needs, think of options, agree. After division or war, reconciliation is built like a bridge: talks, truth, apology, trade, family meetings and shared projects. Germany (1990) and South Africa's truth commission are examples; divided peoples such as on the Korean peninsula still discuss how peaceful unification could happen.