What is suffrage? Who could vote before 1848
Suffrage (or franchise) is the right to vote in elections. After the French Revolution, many governments in Europe allowed only men who paid a lot of tax or owned property to vote. This is called census suffrage (from the old word for a tax list).
In France between 1815 and 1848, kings ruled with a parliament elected by fewer than 250 000 rich men, out of over 30 million people. In Britain, the reform acts of 1832, 1867 and 1884 slowly widened the vote among men. The 1800s were full of upheavals: revolutions in 1830 and 1848, new constitutions and changes of regime, and each time the question was who should have a say.
1848: universal male suffrage and the end of slavery
In February 1848 a revolution in Paris created the Second Republic. Its government quickly decided that every man aged 21 or more could vote, whatever his wealth: universal male suffrage. The number of voters jumped from about 250 000 to about 9 million.
The same year, the republic abolished slavery in the French colonies (decree of April 1848, pushed by Victor Schœlcher). The ideas of freedom and equality were extended, though women were still left out.
Voters had to learn to vote: in April 1848 many walked to the main town of their canton, often in groups led by the mayor or priest, and put a paper ballot in a box. Many could not read, and local notables often told them how to vote.
Voting methods, the failure of the Second Republic and the Second Empire
In December 1848 voters elected Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte president. The assembly, afraid of workers' uprisings (June 1848), cut the voter list again in 1850. In December 1851 Louis-Napoléon seized power in a coup; a year later he became Emperor Napoleon III (Second Empire, 1852–1870).
The emperor kept universal male suffrage but used it in an authoritarian way: plebiscites (yes/no votes) approved his power, and "official candidates" were backed by the state. Newspapers were censored and opponents arrested or exiled; the writer Victor Hugo lived in exile for 19 years and attacked the regime.
The empire also brought prosperity: railways, banks, rebuilt cities, factories such as the Schneider ironworks at Le Creusot. From the 1860s it became more liberal: workers won the right to strike in 1864. Towns grew fast. After defeat in war in 1870 the empire fell and the Third Republic began, keeping male suffrage.
Feminist and women's suffrage movements
Women asked for equal rights from the start. In 1791 Olympe de Gouges wrote a declaration of the rights of woman; in 1792 Mary Wollstonecraft argued that girls deserved the same education as boys.
From the late 1800s women built mass movements:
- Suffragists used peaceful means: petitions, meetings, letters to lawmakers (Millicent Fawcett in Britain, Kate Sheppard in New Zealand).
- Suffragettes (Emmeline Pankhurst's union, from 1903) used louder action: marches, chaining themselves to railings, hunger strikes in prison.
The work of women in the First World War helped change minds. Dates when women got the national vote: New Zealand 1893, Finland 1906, Britain 1918 (over 30) and 1928 (equal), USA 1920, Spain 1931, France 1944, Italy 1946, India 1950 (from the start, for all adults), Switzerland 1971.
Notable women and universal adult suffrage today
Some women who changed history: Kate Sheppard (petitions that won the vote in New Zealand), Emmeline Pankhurst (suffragette leader), Clara Campoamor (argued for women's vote in Spain's parliament in 1931), Sarojini Naidu (poet and freedom fighter who pressed for Indian women's vote), Marie Curie (first woman to win a Nobel Prize, twice).
Universal adult suffrage today means: every adult citizen, one vote each, equal value, secret ballot, free from pressure. The age limit is often 18 (India lowered it from 21 to 18 in 1989). Struggles continue over fair voter lists, access for people with disabilities and turnout.
Try it: a class vote with rules
Hold a pretend class vote three times. Round 1: only pupils with a pen of a certain colour vote. Round 2: only boys (or only girls) vote. Round 3: everyone votes in secret. Did the result change? How did those left out feel? This is why the fight for universal suffrage mattered.
Key formulas and definitions
- Suffrage / franchise: the right to vote
- Census (property) suffrage: only those who pay enough tax or own property vote
- Universal male suffrage: all adult men vote (France 1848)
- Universal adult suffrage: all adult citizens vote, one person one vote
- Plebiscite: a yes/no vote on one question, often used by rulers to approve their power
- Suffragist (peaceful campaigner) vs suffragette (direct action)
Worked examples
1. Why was voting before 1848 in France called census suffrage?
Because only men who paid a high level of tax (the census) could vote, so a tiny rich minority chose the deputies.
2. Name two big changes made by the Second Republic in 1848.
Universal male suffrage (all men 21+) and the abolition of slavery in the colonies.
3. How did Napoleon III keep universal suffrage but still rule as an authoritarian?
He used plebiscites to approve his power, backed official candidates, censored the press and jailed or exiled opponents.
4. What is the difference between suffragists and suffragettes?
Suffragists used peaceful, legal methods like petitions. Suffragettes used direct action such as marches, disruption and hunger strikes.
5. Put in order: women's vote in France, New Zealand, Switzerland.
New Zealand 1893 → France 1944 → Switzerland 1971.
Common mistakes
- Thinking 'universal suffrage' in 1848 included women. It was for men only.
- Thinking the Second Empire abolished voting. Men still voted, but under strong control.
- Mixing up suffragists and suffragettes; both wanted the vote but used different methods.
- Thinking India gave women the vote later than men. The Constitution gave all adults the vote together from 1950.