Russia's foreign policy before 1812
Alexander I first tried to keep peace with France. But in 1805 he joined Britain and Austria in a war against Napoleon (the Third Coalition). Napoleon won a great victory at Austerlitz (December 1805). In the next war (1806-07) the fights at Eylau and Friedland ended without a Russian win.
In July 1807 the two emperors met on a raft on the river Neman and signed the Treaty of Tilsit. Russia promised to join the Continental Blockade, which meant not trading with Britain. This hurt Russian landowners who sold grain and timber to Britain. Many nobles disliked the treaty.
Russia also won land in other wars: Finland from Sweden (1808-09; it became a Grand Duchy under the tsar), Bessarabia from the Ottoman empire (Treaty of Bucharest, May 1812) and lands in the Caucasus from Persia (Treaty of Gulistan, 1813).
Why war began in 1812
By 1810 the two empires were drifting apart. Russia traded with Britain again because the blockade was hurting it. Napoleon was angry and he also worried about Russia's power near the lands he controlled in Poland. In June 1812 (24 June by our calendar) he crossed the Neman with about 450,000 soldiers in the first wave, and more later, from many countries. Russia had about 200,000 in the western armies, split between two commanders: Barclay de Tolly and Bagration.
Note on dates: Russia then used the Julian calendar, 12 days behind ours. This lesson gives new-style (our) dates.
The Russian plan: retreat, burn the supplies, wait
The Russian generals did not fight at once. They retreated deep into the country, taking food and burning what they could not take. This is sometimes called a scorched earth plan. Napoleon's soldiers marched long, hot days, had little food, and many fell sick or deserted. At Smolensk (August) there was heavy fighting, and the city was lost. Many Russians were angry that the army kept retreating, so the tsar named the experienced Mikhail Kutuzov as commander-in-chief.
Borodino (7 September 1812)
About 110 km west of Moscow, near the village of Borodino, Kutuzov chose to stand and fight. About 120,000 Russians met about 130,000 French and allied soldiers. After a day of heavy fighting, each side lost tens of thousands of men (estimates are around 30,000 to 45,000 each).
Napoleon held the field but did not break the Russian army. Kutuzov pulled back in order and kept his army. For this reason both sides called Borodino their success. For Napoleon it was too costly, because he was far from home and could not replace his losses.
Moscow and Tarutino
Kutuzov gave up Moscow to save the army. Napoleon entered the empty city around 14 September. Soon big fires broke out and burned most of it. Napoleon waited for the tsar to ask for peace, but Alexander said no.
Meanwhile Kutuzov moved his army south-west to a camp at Tarutino. There it was fed and joined by new soldiers. The army was also helped by partisans: peasants and small groups of soldiers who attacked French food parties.
Retreat and the end of the Great Army
On 19 October Napoleon left Moscow. The Russians blocked the southern road, so the French went back by the same ruined road they had come on. Winter came early, with deep snow. Soldiers and horses died of cold and hunger. Cossacks and partisans attacked the stragglers. In late November the French crossed the Berezina river under attack and lost thousands more. Napoleon left the army in December and went to Paris. Only a small fraction of the army returned. Most of the 600,000 or more men who had entered Russia were dead, captured or deserted.
Foreign campaigns 1813-1814 and the Holy Alliance
The Russian army did not stop at the border. Kutuzov died in April 1813, but Russia joined Prussia, then Austria, Sweden and Britain. In October 1813 the allies beat Napoleon at Leipzig, the "Battle of the Nations", the biggest fight of the whole period. In March 1814 Russian and allied soldiers entered Paris, and Napoleon gave up his throne in April. After his short return (the "Hundred Days") and defeat at Waterloo (June 1815), the great powers met at the Congress of Vienna. Alexander I then proposed the Holy Alliance (1815) with Austria and Prussia, a promise of the three rulers to defend old thrones and religion. Russia now was the strongest land power in Europe.
Try it: the shrinking army
- In 3D: in the last step, slide from Neman to Berezina. Write the red numbers: 100, ... , 8. At which stop did the army lose most?
- Race game: two friends race. One must carry a heavy bag and cannot eat. The other can walk back slowly towards home. Who is stronger after 10 minutes?
- Draw: a long road with 5 stops (Neman, Smolensk, Borodino, Moscow, Berezina) and shrinking boxes.
Key formulas and definitions
- Treaty of Tilsit: July 1807, peace between Russia and Napoleon; Russia joins the Continental Blockade
- Gains: Finland (1809), Bessarabia (1812)
- Napoleon crosses the Neman: 24 June 1812 (new style)
- Borodino: 7 September 1812 (new style); commander Kutuzov
- Moscow: French enter about 14 September; fires follow
- Leipzig: October 1813; Paris: March 1814; Holy Alliance: 1815
Worked examples
1. Why did Russia not fight a great battle at the border in June 1812?
Step 1: Napoleon's army was much bigger. Step 2: A big early battle could destroy the Russian armies. Step 3: So the Russians fell back, made the French march far from their supplies, and kept their army alive.
2. Which side won at Borodino? Explain.
Step 1: The French held the field at the end. Step 2: But the Russian army was not broken, and Kutuzov retreated in good order. Step 3: Both sides lost tens of thousands. Step 4: So historians say it had no clear winner, but it hurt Napoleon more because he could not replace his men.
3. A column of 400,000 soldiers falls to 25,000. What fraction was lost?
Step 1: Lost = 400,000 - 25,000 = 375,000. Step 2: Fraction = 375,000 / 400,000 = 15/16. So about 15 of every 16 men were lost (an example of the size of the disaster).
4. Give two reasons why Napoleon's army fell apart on the way back.
Reason 1: cold and snow and lack of food and horses. Reason 2: attacks by Cossacks and partisans, and lost battles on the road such as at the Berezina. Also the army was already weak when it left Moscow.
Common mistakes
- Saying the Russians won every battle. They lost Austerlitz, Friedland and gave up Moscow.
- Writing that cold alone destroyed the army. Hunger, disease and attacks happened from summer, before the snow.
- Mixing dates: the Julian calendar was used in Russia; Borodino is 26 August (old style) = 7 September (new style).
- Thinking the war ended at the Russian border. It continued to Leipzig and Paris.