The four goals of Russian foreign policy
Foreign policy means how a state behaves towards other states: wars, treaties, alliances and trade. From 1725 to 1881 Russia's aims stayed close to four ideas.
- Sea access: Russia's northern ports freeze in winter. Rulers wanted warm-water ports on the Baltic and the Black Sea.
- Balance in Europe: Russia joined alliances to stop any one power, like Prussia or France, from getting too strong.
- Balkan friends: many Slavic and Orthodox Christian people lived under the Ottoman Empire. Russia claimed to protect them.
- Far lands: Siberia, the Pacific coast and Central Asia. These were costly to hold, but the state kept growing.
Era of palace coups (1725–1762): the Seven Years' War
After Peter the Great, rulers changed quickly, but Russia stayed a major power. In 1741–43 it fought Sweden and kept more of the Baltic coast.
The Seven Years' War (1756–1763)
This was a war of the great powers in Europe and overseas. Russia, under Empress Elizabeth, joined Austria and France against Prussia and its king Frederick II. Russian armies won big battles, such as Gross-Jägersdorf (1757) and Kunersdorf (1759), and for a short time entered Berlin (1760).
Peace of 1762
Elizabeth died in 1762. Her heir, Peter III, admired Frederick and quickly made peace and then an alliance with Prussia. Russia gave back its gains. Soon Catherine II took the throne and kept Russia out of the war. Lesson: a change of ruler can turn foreign policy around in a few weeks.
Catherine II and Paul I (1762–1801): the Black Sea and Poland
Catherine II wanted the northern shore of the Black Sea, which belonged to the Ottoman Empire and its ally, the Crimean Khanate.
- First Turkish war (1768–74). Russia won on land and at sea. The Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji (1774) gave Russia coast access and the right to speak for Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman lands.
- Crimea (1783). Crimea joined Russia, and a naval base, Sevastopol, was built.
- Second Turkish war (1787–92). Russia kept the north Black Sea coast.
- Poland shared (1772, 1793, 1795). Poland-Lithuania was weak and split inside. Russia, Prussia and Austria took parts of it in three steps until the state was gone from the map. Many Poles saw this as an injustice, and it is remembered that way today.
Paul I
In 1798–99 Paul joined other states against revolutionary France. General Suvorov led Russian troops through Italy and over the Alps in 1799.
Alexander II (1855–1881): rebuilding after Crimea
The Crimean War (1853–56) ended in defeat. By the Treaty of Paris (1856) Russia could not keep a war fleet on the Black Sea. Alexander II and his foreign minister Gorchakov worked to rebuild strength after the war and to avoid new conflicts.
- Amur lands (1858–60): treaties with China gave Russia the Amur river lands and a Pacific coast, where Vladivostok was founded.
- Central Asia (1865–76): Russian forces took Tashkent, Samarkand and other places.
- Alaska (1867): Russia sold Alaska to the USA for 7.2 million dollars. It was far, hard to defend and earned little.
- Black Sea (1870–71): while Europe was busy with the Franco-Prussian War, Russia said it would ignore the Black Sea ban. The powers accepted this in 1871.
- Three Emperors' League (1873): Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary agreed to consult each other.
Balkan war and Congress of Berlin (1877–78)
In the 1870s Slavic Christians in the Balkans rose against Ottoman rule. Many Russians wanted to help. In 1877 Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire. After hard fighting, such as the siege of Plevna, Russian troops came close to Constantinople.
The Treaty of San Stefano (March 1878) created a large Bulgaria. Britain and Austria-Hungary feared too much Russian influence. At the Congress of Berlin (July 1878) Bulgaria was made smaller and Russia's gains were cut. Russians felt cheated by their former partners, and ties with Germany and Austria cooled.
Alexander II was killed in March 1881. His son Alexander III took a more cautious and conservative course.
Cause and effect: how to answer exam questions
Use a chain: goal → event → result.
- Goal: warm-water port → First Turkish war → Treaty of 1774, Crimea 1783.
- Goal: balance in Europe → Seven Years' War → peace of 1762 shows how a ruler's choice changes policy.
- Goal: Balkan friends → war of 1877–78 → San Stefano, then cut back at Berlin.
- Goal: far lands and money → Alaska sold, Amur and Central Asia taken.
Tip: put dates on a time line and give each event one row. This is exactly what the 3D lab does.
Key formulas and definitions
- Seven Years' War: 1756–1763 (Russia vs Prussia until 1762)
- Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji: 1774 (first Turkish war)
- Crimea joins Russia: 1783
- Partitions of Poland: 1772, 1793, 1795
- Alaska sold to the USA: 1867 for 7.2 million dollars
- Russo-Turkish War 1877–78: San Stefano (March), Berlin (July) 1878
Worked examples
1. Why did Peter III stop the war with Prussia in 1762?
He admired Prussia's king Frederick II and wanted peace and an alliance. So Russia gave back what its army had won. Catherine II later stayed out of the war too.
2. Give two reasons why Russia wanted the Black Sea coast.
First, northern ports freeze; Black Sea ports stay open for trade and ships. Second, it gave the navy a base and protected the southern border from raids.
3. Why did Russia sell Alaska in 1867?
It was very far from Russia, costly to defend and brought little income. Russia also needed money and wanted a friendly relation with the USA rather than a possible clash with Britain over it.
Common mistakes
- Mixing the two Turkish wars of Catherine II. First (1768–74) gave sea access; second (1787–92) confirmed it.
- Saying Russia won territory in the Seven Years' War. After 1762 it gave its gains back.
- Thinking San Stefano was the final peace. The Congress of Berlin changed it a few months later.
- Writing Alaska was "lost in war". It was sold by treaty in 1867.