Foreign policy before the war
Nicholas I wanted Russia to be a strong guard of the old order in Europe. He also wanted safe trade routes through the Black Sea and the straits (the narrow waters near Constantinople, now Istanbul).
- Persia (1826-28): Russia won. The Treaty of Turkmenchay (1828) gave Russia new lands in the Caucasus and money.
- Ottoman Empire (1828-29): Russia won again. By the Treaty of Adrianople (1829) Russia gained Danube mouth areas and rights for Russian ships in the straits.
- 1833: a treaty with the Ottomans gave Russia strong influence. Other powers opposed it, and in 1841 an agreement closed the straits to foreign warships in peacetime.
- Hungary (1849): Russian troops helped Austria crush a revolt. After this Russia was called the "gendarme of Europe".
The Caucasus also saw a long mountain war against local leaders like Shamil, which ended after the Crimean War.
The Eastern Question
"The Eastern Question" means: what should happen as the Ottoman Empire grows weak? Nicholas called it "the sick man of Europe". Russia wanted influence over Orthodox Christians in Ottoman lands and free movement of ships. Britain and France feared that a strong Russia near the straits would threaten their trade routes. Each side watched the others. A small quarrel could grow into a big war.
Causes of the Crimean War
- Holy places: France and Russia quarrelled over who should guard Christian holy places in Jerusalem, which was under the Ottomans.
- Russian demands: in 1853 Russia asked the sultan for a right to protect Orthodox Christians in his lands. The sultan refused.
- Danube: Russia sent troops into the Danube principalities (today parts of Romania). In October 1853 the Ottomans declared war.
Behind these were real aims: influence near the straits and trade routes.
Sinop and the siege of Sevastopol
Sinop (30 November 1853): Admiral Nakhimov led Russian ships against the Ottoman fleet in Sinop bay and destroyed it in a few hours. It was a great naval victory, but it alarmed Britain and France.
Allies join (March 1854): Britain and France declared war on Russia. Later the kingdom of Sardinia joined them too. The allies landed in Crimea in September 1854.
Sevastopol (Sept 1854 to Sept 1855): Sevastopol was Russia's main Black Sea naval base. Admirals Kornilov and Nakhimov, both killed in the fight, and Totleben (engineer) led its defence. Sailors came ashore to fight and ships were sunk to block the harbour. The city held 349 days. Women nurses, including Daria Sevastopolskaya on the Russian side and Florence Nightingale on the allied side, helped the wounded. In the end the allies captured the southern part of the city.
On 18 February 1855 Nicholas I died. His son Alexander II ended the war.
Peace of Paris (1856) and results
- The Black Sea was neutralised: no warships or naval bases for Russia or the Ottomans.
- Russia gave up the mouth of the Danube area (southern Bessarabia).
- The great powers promised to respect the Ottoman state.
Russia was weaker in prestige. (In 1870-71 Russia cancelled the Black Sea rules while Europe was busy with another war.)
Why did Russia lose?
- Ships: allies had steamships; Russia mostly had sailing ships.
- Guns: allied rifles shot farther and more truly than Russian smooth-bore guns.
- Roads and rail: no railway to the south, so supplies came slowly. The allies came by sea.
- System: serfdom gave poorly trained conscript soldiers (25 years of service), and the economy was slower than Europe's.
The lesson was clear: Russia needed reform. The next tsar began the Great Reforms (next lesson).
Try it: cause and effect chain
- In 3D: in the last step, pick each cause and write "ships", "guns", "supply" or "numbers" next to it.
- Draw: a chain of five boxes: Eastern Question, Sinop, allies join, Sevastopol, Paris 1856. Add an arrow from each to the next.
- Think: Russia won at Sinop but lost the war. Why can winning one battle still lose a war?
Key formulas and definitions
- Treaty of Turkmenchay: 1828 (Persia); Treaty of Adrianople: 1829 (Ottomans)
- Hungarian revolt crushed with Russian help: 1849; "gendarme of Europe"
- Crimean War: 1853-1856; Sinop 30 Nov 1853
- Britain and France join: March 1854; siege of Sevastopol: Sept 1854 to Sept 1855
- Nicholas I died: 18 February 1855
- Peace of Paris: March 1856, Black Sea neutral
Worked examples
1. What was the "Eastern Question"?
Step 1: The Ottoman Empire was getting weaker. Step 2: The question was who would gain power and influence near it, especially around the straits and the Black Sea. Step 3: Russia, Britain, France and Austria all had different aims, so the question caused tension for a long time.
2. Russia won at Sinop. Why did this lead to a bigger war?
Step 1: Sinop destroyed the Ottoman fleet. Step 2: Britain and France feared Russia was getting too strong near the straits. Step 3: So in 1854 they joined the Ottomans, and Russia now had to fight three strong states.
3. Give three reasons for Russia's defeat.
Step 1: Ships: allies had steam ships. Step 2: Weapons: allies had rifled guns. Step 3: Supply: no railway to the south. Also, the army of serf conscripts was poorly trained and equipped.
4. What did the Peace of Paris (1856) decide about the Black Sea?
Step 1: The Black Sea was made neutral. Step 2: No warships or naval bases for Russia and the Ottomans there. Step 3: This took away Russia's sea power in the south until it changed the rule in 1870-71.
Common mistakes
- Thinking Russia lost every battle. It won at Sinop and defended Sevastopol for a year.
- Mixing up the Treaty of Adrianople (1829, Ottomans) and Turkmenchay (1828, Persia).
- Saying the war ended under Nicholas I. He died in 1855; Alexander II signed the peace in 1856.
- Forgetting that the war led to the Great Reforms, including the end of serfdom.