Causes: the succession crisis of 1066
Edward the Confessor died on 5 January 1066 without an heir. Each claimant had a reason:
- Harold Godwinson: the most powerful English earl; said Edward named him on his deathbed; chosen by the Witan (the king's council). Crowned on 6 January.
- William, Duke of Normandy: Edward's cousin; said Edward promised him the throne and that Harold swore an oath to support him; had the Pope's blessing.
- Harald Hardrada, King of Norway: claimed through an old agreement between earlier kings; joined by Harold's exiled brother Tostig.
- Edgar Ætheling, a teenage relative of Edward, had the best blood claim but little support.
Military aspects: Stamford Bridge and Hastings
25 September 1066: Harold marched north fast and defeated Hardrada at Stamford Bridge. Days later William landed at Pevensey in the south. Harold rushed back about 400 km.
14 October 1066, Battle of Hastings:
- English: housecarls (trained warriors) and fyrd (part-time soldiers) in a shield wall on top of a hill.
- Normans: archers, foot soldiers and mounted knights.
- Uphill charges failed at first. Then Normans used feigned retreats: some English broke ranks to chase and were cut down, opening gaps.
- Harold was killed late in the day; the English army collapsed.
Why William won: luck (the wind and Hardrada's timing), his careful preparation and mixed army, and Harold's mistakes (tired troops, not waiting for more men).
Establishing and maintaining control
William was crowned on Christmas Day 1066. Over the next years he faced revolts: Exeter (1068), the North with Danish help (1069), Hereward the Wake at Ely (1070–71) and the Revolt of the Earls (1075).
- Castles: about 500 built by 1100, first motte-and-bailey in earth and timber, later in stone. They watched towns, roads and rivers.
- Harrying of the North (1069–70): William's army burned villages, crops and animals across large parts of the north; famine killed many thousands. It ended northern rebellion but was condemned even at the time.
- Land: English lords lost land to Norman barons; by 1086 almost all great landholders were Norman.
Feudalism and government
Feudalism means land given in return for loyalty and service. The king owned all land. Tenants-in-chief (barons and bishops) held land from him and supplied knights. Knights held smaller areas and fought. Peasants (villeins, serfs) worked the land in return for protection and a strip of land.
Government kept many English parts: shires run by sheriffs (now Normans), written orders called writs, and the national tax system. The Domesday Book (1086) surveyed land, people, ploughs and animals, so William knew what each estate was worth and who owed him tax and service.
Economic and social changes
- A new ruling class: Norman French became the language of lords and courts; Latin for records; English for ordinary people.
- Many peasants were pushed lower: more people became unfree villeins.
- Forest law: large royal forests set aside for hunting with harsh punishments for poaching.
- Towns grew round castles and cathedrals; trade with Normandy increased.
- Slavery, common before 1066, declined.
The Norman Church and monasticism
The Church
In 1070 Lanfranc, an Italian-born scholar-monk, became Archbishop of Canterbury. English bishops were replaced by Normans; church courts were separated from royal courts; rules for priests (such as not marrying) were tightened. Huge stone cathedrals such as Canterbury, Durham and Winchester were rebuilt in the Romanesque style with round arches and thick walls.
Monasticism
Monks lived by the Rule of St Benedict: prayer, study and work. The Normans founded and rebuilt many monasteries, and new orders such as the Cluniacs arrived. Monasteries kept schools and libraries, copied books, looked after the sick and travellers, and farmed large estates.
The historic environment: studying a Norman site
Use these questions on any Norman castle, cathedral or abbey:
- Location: why here? High ground, river crossing, a town to control, a coast to guard.
- Purpose and structure: defence (motte, keep, walls, ditch), living space, prayer, a show of power.
- People and design: who ordered it and who built it? English labour, Norman masons, stone sometimes brought from Caen in Normandy.
- Reflecting the period: timber first, then stone; a huge keep or cathedral says 'the Normans are here to stay'.
Example: the White Tower in London, begun in the 1070s, guarded the river and the city and was a palace and stronghold in one.
Try it: build and explain
Use the castle builder in step 6. Then draw your own motte-and-bailey on paper, label five parts and write one line on what each does. Finally, choose a place near you — a hill, a river bend, a crossroads — and explain whether a Norman would have built a castle there.
Key formulas and definitions
- 1066: Stamford Bridge (25 Sept), Hastings (14 Oct), William crowned (25 Dec)
- Motte-and-bailey: earth mound with a tower + fenced yard
- Harrying of the North: 1069–70 destruction of the north to end revolt
- Feudalism: land for loyalty and service — king → barons/bishops → knights → peasants
- Domesday Book (1086): survey of land and resources for tax
- Lanfranc: Archbishop of Canterbury from 1070, reformed the Church
- Romanesque: Norman building style with round arches and thick walls
Worked examples
1. Explain one reason why William won the Battle of Hastings.
His tactics: Norman knights used feigned retreats. English soldiers broke the shield wall to chase them and were cut down, which opened gaps that let the Normans attack the rest of the line.
2. Why did William build castles so quickly after 1066?
About 10,000 Normans had to control around 2 million English. Castles could be built in weeks, held by a few soldiers, watched over towns and roads, and acted as bases to crush revolts — and they showed the English who was in charge.
3. What was the purpose of the Domesday Book?
To record who held each piece of land, how many people, ploughs and animals it had, and what it was worth, so William could collect tax and know what service each lord owed. It also settled land disputes.
4. How did the Harrying of the North help William keep control? Was it worth it?
It destroyed food and shelter so rebels and Danish allies could not survive there, and frightened others; there was no major northern revolt afterwards. But tens of thousands died of famine, the north stayed poor for years, and even Norman writers criticised it.
Common mistakes
- Thinking William won in 1066 and faced no more trouble. Revolts went on until 1075.
- Mixing up the two battles: Stamford Bridge (Harold beat Hardrada) and Hastings (William beat Harold).
- Thinking the Normans swept away all English government. They kept shires, sheriffs, writs and the tax system.
- Saying castles were stone from the start. The first ones were earth and timber.