Elizabeth I, her court and the problem of a female ruler
Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. She became queen in 1558, aged 25. Many people at the time believed a woman should not rule alone. They expected her to marry quickly and let a husband guide her.
Why marriage was a problem
If she married a foreign prince, England might be pulled into his country's wars. If she married an English noble, other nobles would be jealous. If she never married, there would be no child to take the throne (this is called the succession problem). Elizabeth never married. She used the chance of marriage as a tool to keep other rulers friendly.
The court
The court was the group of nobles, advisers and servants around the Queen, wherever she was. Being close to her meant power and reward. Elizabeth used patronage: she gave jobs, land and titles to loyal people. Important figures included William Cecil (her chief adviser), Robert Dudley (her favourite) and Francis Walsingham (her spymaster).
Privy Council and Parliament
The Privy Council was a small group (about 12–19 men) who met often to advise her and run the country. Parliament met only when she called it. It made laws and, most importantly, agreed taxes. MPs sometimes pushed her on marriage, the succession and religion. Elizabeth used her royal prerogative (special powers of the monarch) to tell them some topics were hers alone. Late in her reign MPs complained about monopolies (the sole right to sell a product), and in 1601 she gave way in a famous 'Golden Speech'.
Troubles at home and abroad
Religion
England had switched between Catholic and Protestant several times. In 1559 Elizabeth's Religious Settlement made England Protestant but kept some Catholic-looking traditions, such as bishops and church robes. It was a 'middle way'. People who refused to attend church were fined (they were called recusants). Strict Protestants called Puritans wanted even fewer Catholic traditions, and they too caused tension.
Mary, Queen of Scots
Mary was Elizabeth's Catholic cousin and the next in line to the throne. She fled from Scotland to England in 1568. Elizabeth kept her under guard for 19 years. Catholics plotted to put Mary on the throne: the Revolt of the Northern Earls (1569), the Ridolfi Plot (1571), the Throckmorton Plot (1583) and the Babington Plot (1586). Walsingham's spies found letters proving Mary agreed to the last plot, and she was executed in 1587.
Conflict with Spain
Spain was rich and Catholic. The two countries clashed over religion, trade in the Americas, English 'sea dogs' attacking Spanish treasure ships, and English help for Protestant rebels in the Netherlands. In 1588 King Philip II sent the Armada, about 130 ships, to carry an army to England. English ships were smaller and faster, with better guns. Fireships at Calais broke the Armada's tight crescent shape, the battle of Gravelines damaged it, and storms wrecked many ships as they sailed home round Scotland and Ireland.
Life in Elizabethan times
A 'Golden Age'?
For the rich, life improved. Wealthy families built large houses with glass windows and long galleries. Education spread in grammar schools. The theatre boomed: purpose-built playhouses like the Theatre (1576) and the Globe (1599) drew huge crowds, from nobles to apprentices. Writers such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe worked at this time. Some Puritans and city leaders disliked theatres, saying they spread disease and idleness.
The poor
For many, life got harder. The population grew, prices rose faster than wages, and bad harvests (especially in the 1590s) caused hunger. Some landowners fenced off fields for sheep (enclosure), leaving fewer jobs. People without work wandered looking for it; they were called vagabonds and were often punished harshly. Laws slowly changed: the Poor Law of 1601 made each parish collect a poor rate (a local tax) to help the 'deserving poor', such as the old and sick, while still punishing those thought able but unwilling to work.
English sailors and exploration
Better ships, compasses and maps helped sailors go further. Francis Drake sailed around the world (1577–1580) and came home with treasure. Walter Raleigh tried to set up a colony at Roanoke in North America in the 1580s, but it failed. Trade companies, such as the East India Company (1600), were founded to make money from long-distance trade.
Studying a historic site from the period
Many courses ask you to study one real place from this time, such as a great house (for example Hardwick Hall), a playhouse (the Globe), a ship, or a royal palace. Use the same four questions for any site:
- Where and why here? Location: near a river for transport, on good farmland, in a town for crowds.
- What was it for, and how is it built? Purpose (home, show of wealth, entertainment, defence) and structure (rooms, layout, materials).
- Who made it and who used it? The owner, designer and the people who lived, worked or visited there.
- How does it show its time? Big glass windows show new wealth; a round open-air playhouse shows the theatre boom; a fast gun ship shows the war with Spain.
Try it: pick any old building near you. Answer the four questions in one line each. You have just done a historic-environment study!
Key formulas and definitions
- Religious Settlement (1559): a Protestant Church with some Catholic traditions — the 'middle way'.
- Privy Council: the Queen's small group of top advisers who ran the country day to day.
- Royal prerogative: the special powers that belonged only to the monarch.
- Recusant: a Catholic who refused to attend Church of England services.
- Patronage: giving jobs, land or titles to reward loyalty.
- Poor rate: a local tax collected by each parish to help the poor (made national in 1601).
Worked examples
1. Why did Elizabeth need Parliament even though she was queen?
Parliament had to agree new taxes. Wars, especially against Spain, cost far more than the Crown's normal income, so she had to call Parliament to raise money.
2. Put the plots involving Mary, Queen of Scots in time order and say what finally happened.
Northern Earls revolt 1569 → Ridolfi 1571 → Throckmorton 1583 → Babington 1586. Letters from the Babington Plot proved Mary agreed, so she was executed in February 1587.
3. Give three reasons the Armada failed.
1) English fireships at Calais broke the Armada's crescent formation. 2) Faster English ships with better long-range guns did damage at Gravelines. 3) Storms on the long route home around Scotland and Ireland wrecked many ships.
Common mistakes
- Thinking Elizabeth made England fully Puritan. The 1559 Settlement was a middle way; Puritans wanted more change.
- Saying the Golden Age was golden for everyone. It mostly helped the rich; the poor faced rising prices and hunger.
- Mixing up the Privy Council and Parliament. The Council met often to advise; Parliament met only when called, to pass laws and taxes.
- Believing Mary, Queen of Scots was executed as soon as she arrived. She was held for 19 years and executed only after the Babington Plot (1587).