Spain 1º Bachillerato Physics and Chemistry
Chapters: 6
1. Chemical bonding and structure of matter
Development of the periodic table · Electron structure and periodic position · Stability of atoms and chemical bonds · Inorganic nomenclature
- Periodic Classification of Elements – Scientists sorted elements so that similar ones sit together. Döbereiner made triads, Newlands found that every 8th element repeats (octaves), Mendeleev arranged elements by atomic mass and left gaps for unknown ones. Moseley showed that atomic number is the real key. Modern periodic law: the properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic numbers. The modern table has 7 periods and 18 groups. Elements with Z > 100 get temporary IUPAC names built from digit roots (nil, un, bi, tri, quad, pent, hex, sept, oct, enn) plus -ium.
- Electronic Configuration and the s, p, d, f Blocks – The periodic table is really a map of electron filling. The period number is the highest shell (n) being used. The block is the subshell that receives the last electron: s-block (groups 1–2, ns¹⁻²), p-block (groups 13–18, ns² np¹⁻⁶), d-block (groups 3–12, (n−1)d¹⁻¹⁰ ns⁰⁻²) and f-block (lanthanoids and actinoids, (n−2)f¹⁻¹⁴ (n−1)d⁰⁻¹ ns²). Group: s-block = number of ns electrons; p-block = 10 + ns + np electrons; d-block = ns + (n−1)d electrons.
- Kossel-Lewis Approach and the Ionic Bond – Atoms join so that each gets a stable outer shell of 8 electrons (an octet), like a noble gas. Kossel said atoms can give or take electrons to make ions (ionic bond). Lewis said atoms can also share pairs of electrons (covalent bond). Lewis structures show these electrons as dots and lines. Formal charge (V − L − B/2) helps pick the best Lewis structure. Ions pack into a crystal, and the energy released is linked to the lattice enthalpy.
2. Chemical reactions
Fundamental laws of chemistry · Classifying chemical reactions · Amounts of substance in gases and solutions · Stoichiometry in industry
- Stoichiometry, Limiting Reagent and Concentration Terms – Stoichiometry means measuring the amounts of substances in a reaction. A balanced equation acts like a recipe: its numbers give the mole ratio of reactants and products. With it you can change any mass into moles, use the ratio, and change back to the mass of any other substance. The reactant that runs out first is the limiting reagent; it decides how much product forms. For solutions, concentration is given as mass percent, mole fraction, molarity or molality.
- Chemical Reactions and Balancing Equations – In a chemical reaction atoms are not made or destroyed; they only change partners. So a chemical equation must have the same number of each kind of atom on both sides. We balance it by changing the numbers in front of formulas, never the formulas themselves.
- Mole Concept, Molar Mass and Chemical Formulas – Atoms are far too small to count one by one, so chemists count them by weighing. Atomic masses are given in u, where 1 u is one-twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom. One mole is 6.022 × 10²³ particles, and its mass in grams equals the formula mass in u. With moles we can find the percentage of each element in a compound, and work back from percentages to the empirical and molecular formulas.
3. Organic chemistry
Properties of organic compounds · IUPAC naming of organic compounds
- Organic Compounds: Structure, Formulae and Classification – Organic chemistry is the chemistry of carbon compounds. A carbon atom has 4 outer electrons, so it always makes 4 bonds. This is called tetravalence. With 4 single bonds the carbon is sp³ and its bonds point to the corners of a tetrahedron (109.5°). With one double bond it is sp² and flat (120°). With a triple bond it is sp and straight (180°). We can draw the same molecule in several ways: complete, condensed, bond-line and 3D wedge-dash. Finally we sort organic compounds into open-chain and ring compounds, and into families by their functional group. Members of one family form a homologous series, where each member differs by one CH₂.
- IUPAC Nomenclature and Isomerism of Organic Compounds – Millions of organic compounds exist, so every one needs a clear, unique name. The IUPAC system builds a name from three parts: the word root (number of carbons in the main chain), the suffix (type of bond and main functional group) and the prefixes (side groups). You pick the longest chain that holds the main group, number it so the main group and branches get the lowest numbers, and write side groups in alphabetical order. Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different arrangement. Structural isomers differ in how atoms are joined (chain, position, functional group, metamerism). Stereoisomers are joined the same way but differ in 3D arrangement (geometrical cis/trans and optical isomers).
4. Kinematics
Kinematic variables over time · Linear and circular motion · Compound motion and trajectories
- Projectile Motion and Uniform Circular Motion (Class 11) – In a plane, r = r₀ + v₀t + ½at² and v = v₀ + at, applied separately along x and y. A projectile has constant horizontal velocity u cos θ and a vertical velocity that changes by g each second, so its path is a parabola: y = x tan θ − gx²/(2u²cos²θ). T = 2u sin θ/g, H = u² sin²θ/2g, R = u² sin 2θ/g (maximum at 45°). In uniform circular motion speed is constant but the velocity turns, giving a centripetal acceleration a = v²/r = ω²r towards the centre.
5. Statics and dynamics
Forces, couples and rigid bodies · Vector mechanics and equilibrium · Momentum and impulse
- Torque, Angular Momentum and Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies – Torque is the turning effect of a force: τ = r × F, size rF sinθ, unit N m. Angular momentum is the turning version of momentum: L = r × p; for a body spinning about a fixed axis L = Iω. Torque changes angular momentum: τ = dL/dt. If the outside torque is zero, L stays constant, so pulling mass in makes a body spin faster. A rigid body is in equilibrium when the total force is zero (no sliding) and the total torque about any point is zero (no turning).
- Force and Laws of Motion – A force is a push or a pull. Balanced forces (net force zero) do not change motion; an unbalanced force changes speed or direction. Friction opposes sliding. First law: a body keeps its state of rest or uniform motion unless an unbalanced force acts (inertia; heavier bodies have more inertia). Momentum p = mv. Second law: F = ma (rate of change of momentum), 1 N = 1 kg m/s². Third law: forces come in equal and opposite pairs acting on two different bodies. For a system with no outside force, internal forces cancel and total momentum is conserved.
6. Energy
Work and power · Kinetic and potential energy · Thermodynamic variables and heat transfer
- Work, Energy and Power – Work is done when a force moves an object: W = F × s, measured in joules (J). Energy is the ability to do work. A moving body has kinetic energy ½mv²; a raised body has potential energy mgh. Energy is never made or destroyed, only changed from one form to another. Power is how fast work is done: P = W ÷ t, in watts. Simple machines like levers and pulleys let a small effort move a big load.
- First Law of Thermodynamics – Internal energy U is the total energy of the molecules inside a system. It changes in only two ways: by heat Q (energy that flows because of a temperature difference) and by work W (energy moved by a force, like a moving piston). First law: ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW. Heat given to a gas partly raises its internal energy and partly lets it do work. Work by a gas at constant pressure is PΔV. For an ideal gas Cp − Cv = R.