Russia 9 класс Biology (basic)

1. Human as a biosocial species

Sciences about humans · Place of humans in nature

• Sciences About Humans: Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene – Anatomy studies how the body is built, physiology studies how it works, and hygiene studies how to stay healthy. Scientists use observation, measurement and experiments. Doctors, surgeons, physiologists, sports scientists and nutritionists all use these sciences.
• Evolution: Origin of Life, Mechanisms and Human Evolution – Life began on the early Earth from simple chemicals: Oparin and Haldane proposed it and Miller made amino acids in a flask. Evidence of evolution comes from fossils, homologous and analogous organs, embryos, molecules and changes we can watch (industrial melanism, drug resistance). Darwin explained it by natural selection acting on variation in populations; the modern synthetic theory adds genes: mutation, recombination, gene flow, genetic drift and natural selection change allele frequencies. If none of these act, frequencies stay constant: Hardy–Weinberg, p² + 2pq + q² = 1. Selection can be stabilising, directional or disruptive. One ancestor spreading into many habitats gives adaptive radiation (Darwin’s finches, Australian marsupials). Humans evolved from Dryopithecus-like apes through Australopithecus, Homo habilis, Homo erectus and Neanderthals to Homo sapiens.

2. Structure of the human body

Cell and tissues

• Tissues: Plant and Animal Tissues – A tissue is a group of similar cells that do one job together. Cells form tissues, tissues form organs, organs form organ systems and systems form an organism. Plants have dividing meristematic tissue and non-dividing permanent tissue, including xylem (water up) and phloem (food both ways). Animals have epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous tissue. Bones, muscles and joints need good posture, exercise and food rich in calcium.

3. Neurohumoral regulation

Nervous system · Endocrine system

• Nervous System, Reflex Action and the Human Brain – Nerve cells (neurons) carry messages as electric impulses and pass them to the next cell with chemicals across a gap called a synapse. Quick safety responses (reflexes) are handled by the spinal cord; thinking and control come from the brain, which is guarded by the skull and a fluid cushion.
• Hormones in Animals: Endocrine Glands and Feedback – Endocrine glands release chemical messengers called hormones straight into the blood. The blood carries them all over the body, but they act only on target cells. Hormones control growth, metabolism, emergency response, blood sugar and puberty, and their amount is kept right by feedback.

4. Support and movement

Skeleton · Muscles · Disorders and first aid

• The Skeletal System – The skeleton is the body's frame of 206 bones (adult). It has five main jobs: support and shape, protection, movement (with muscles), making blood cells in red marrow, and storing minerals like calcium. Bones meet at joints; hinge joints (elbow, knee) bend one way, ball-and-socket joints (shoulder, hip) move in all directions. Ligaments join bone to bone, tendons join muscle to bone, cartilage cushions the ends. Muscles only pull, so they work in antagonistic pairs such as biceps and triceps.
• First Aid: What to Do in an Emergency – First aid is the help you give an injured or ill person until trained help arrives. Its aims: preserve life, stop things getting worse, help recovery. Follow DRABC: Danger, Response, Airway, Breathing, CPR/Call. Breathing but unresponsive → recovery position. Not breathing normally → CPR 30:2 at 100-120 pushes a minute, 5-6 cm deep, and an AED. Bleeding → direct pressure. Burns → cool running water 20 minutes. Choking → back blows and abdominal thrusts. Sprains → RICE.

5. Internal environment

Blood · Immunity

• Transportation in Humans: Heart, Blood Vessels, Blood and Lymph – The heart is a four-chambered muscular pump. Blood passes through it twice in one full round: once to the lungs to pick up oxygen, and once to the rest of the body. This is double circulation. Arteries carry blood away from the heart, veins bring it back and capillaries do the exchange. Blood (plasma, RBCs, WBCs, platelets) and lymph together carry food, gases, hormones and wastes.
• The Immune System: How Your Body Fights Germs – Germs (pathogens) cause infectious disease. The body has three lines of defence: barriers (skin, mucus, acid), a fast general (innate) response (inflammation, fever, phagocytes) and a slow, specific (adaptive) response (B cells make antibodies, T cells kill infected cells). Memory cells make the second attack fast. Vaccines create memory safely. Immunity can go wrong: allergy, autoimmune disease, immunodeficiency (e.g. HIV).

6. Circulation

Heart and vessels

• Transportation in Humans: Heart, Blood Vessels, Blood and Lymph – The heart is a four-chambered muscular pump. Blood passes through it twice in one full round: once to the lungs to pick up oxygen, and once to the rest of the body. This is double circulation. Arteries carry blood away from the heart, veins bring it back and capillaries do the exchange. Blood (plasma, RBCs, WBCs, platelets) and lymph together carry food, gases, hormones and wastes.

7. Respiration

Respiratory system

• Respiration: Aerobic, Anaerobic and the Human Lungs – Respiration is the breakdown of food, usually glucose, inside cells to release energy, stored as ATP. With oxygen (aerobic) glucose is fully broken into carbon dioxide and water and gives much energy; without oxygen (anaerobic) it gives little energy and makes ethanol (yeast) or lactic acid (muscles). Our lungs bring oxygen to the blood through millions of alveoli.

8. Nutrition and digestion

Digestive system

• Human Digestive System and Heterotrophic Nutrition – Heterotrophs take ready-made food from other living things. Humans are holozoic: we eat whole food and break it down in a long tube, the alimentary canal. Teeth, saliva, stomach acid, enzymes, bile and pancreatic juice cut big food molecules into small ones that villi in the small intestine absorb into blood.

9. Metabolism

Metabolism and vitamins

• Nutrition – Nutrition is how we get and use the substances in food. The body needs six groups of nutrients: carbohydrates and fats (mainly energy), proteins (growth and repair), vitamins and minerals (small amounts to keep the body working), and water, plus fibre for healthy digestion. Carbohydrate and protein give about 17 kJ per gram, fat about 37 kJ per gram. A balanced diet gives all nutrients in the right amounts, and energy in should roughly equal energy out.

10. Skin

Skin

• Human Skin: Layers, Jobs and Sun Safety – Skin is the largest organ of the body. It has three layers: the epidermis (outer, waterproof, holds melanin), the dermis (blood vessels, nerves, glands, hair roots) and a fat layer underneath. It protects, senses touch and pain, controls body temperature with sweat and blood flow, and makes vitamin D in sunlight. Too much UV light harms skin cells, speeds ageing and can cause skin cancer such as melanoma.

11. Excretion

Urinary system

• Excretion in Humans and Plants: Kidneys, Nephrons and More – Excretion is the removal of harmful nitrogen wastes made in the body. Two kidneys filter blood through about a million nephrons each: the glomerulus filters, the tubule takes back useful glucose, amino acids, salts and water, and the leftover urea and extra water become urine. Plants remove waste through stomata, falling leaves, bark, resins and gums.

12. Reproduction and development

Reproduction and heredity

• Reproduction in Human Beings and Reproductive Health – At puberty, hormones from the brain make the testes and ovaries start working. The male system makes and carries sperm; the female system makes eggs and provides a place (uterus) where a baby develops. Fertilisation happens in the oviduct, and the embryo is fed through the placenta. Reproductive health includes safe choices, contraception, avoiding female foeticide, and preventing sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV/AIDS.

13. Sense organs

Vision, hearing, other senses

• Sense Organs – Sense organs let us pick up changes around us (stimuli). The eye senses light, the ear sound and balance, the nose smell, the tongue taste, and the skin touch, pressure, heat, cold and pain. Each has receptor cells that turn the stimulus into nerve signals. The signal goes along a sensory nerve to the brain or spinal cord, which sends an order to a muscle: the response.

14. Behaviour and mind

Higher nervous activity

Coming soon

15. Human and environment

Health and environment

• Sustainability – Sustainability means meeting our needs today without taking away the ability of future people to meet theirs. It rests on three pillars — environment, society and economy. A resource is used sustainably when we use it no faster than it renews. Today humanity uses about 1.7 Earths' worth of resources a year, and this use is very unequal. Stewardship, careful planning and spatial tools like GIS help us move towards sustainability.