Peace by treaty: Westphalia 1648
From 1618 to 1648 a long war, the Thirty Years War, was fought in central Europe. Many rulers and religious groups took part and millions of people died or suffered. In 1648 delegates met in two towns, Osnabrück and Münster, and agreed on the Peace of Westphalia.
The treaties did three useful things: they ended the fighting; they said each ruler is the master of his own land and should not be dictated to by others (sovereignty); and they set a rule about religion in each land, so that religion was less often a reason for war. Importantly, many states talked at one big congress, which became a model for later peace conferences.
Weak point: a treaty works only while the parties want to obey it.
Collective security and the UN
Collective security means: "an attack on one is a concern for all". Members promise not to use force against each other and to act together if one of them does. After World War I the League of Nations (1920) tried this, but it had no army, some big countries stayed out, and decisions needed everybody to agree. It failed to stop a new world war.
After World War II the United Nations was set up in 1945. Its Charter bans the use of force except for self-defence or when the Security Council agrees. The Security Council has 15 members; five (China, France, Russia, the UK, the USA) are permanent and can veto. The veto can block action, which is one big weakness. The UN can use talks, sanctions, peacekeepers and, in the last case, force approved by the Council.
UN action under Kofi Annan
Kofi Annan, from Ghana, was UN Secretary-General from 1997 to 2006. He won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001 together with the UN. Before that, as head of peacekeeping, he saw the UN fail to stop mass killing in Rwanda (1994) and Srebrenica (1995). These lessons shaped his work.
- Prevent: talk early, use envoys and mediation, because stopping a war is cheaper than ending one.
- Keep peace: the Brahimi report (2000) asked for clearer missions and stronger peacekeeping forces.
- Protect people: in 2005 world leaders accepted the idea of the Responsibility to Protect: if a government cannot or will not protect its people from mass crimes, the world has a duty to help, with the Security Council deciding on force as a last step.
- Rebuild: the Peacebuilding Commission (2005) helps countries after a war with courts, elections, schools and jobs.
Critics point out that the UN has limited power and money, and that the Iraq war of 2003 went ahead without clear Council approval, which hurt trust.
What makes peace last?
Ending shooting is only negative peace. Lasting peace also needs fairness, trust and working institutions, called positive peace. Treaties, collective action and peacekeepers help, but people also need justice, food, schools and a say in decisions. When these are missing, quarrels start again.
Try it: the peace tools
In the 3D, start with only "Quarrel" and note the tension. Add "Treaty". Then add "All join to stop it". Finally add "Peacekeepers". Write the tension after each tool. Which step gave the biggest fall? In real life, do you think the order matters?
Key formulas and definitions
- Key terms: treaty, sovereignty, collective security, veto, peacekeeping
- Westphalia: 1648, ended the Thirty Years War (1618 to 1648)
- UN founded: 1945. Security Council: 5 permanent + 10 elected members
- Kofi Annan: Secretary-General 1997 to 2006, Nobel Peace Prize 2001
- Responsibility to Protect: accepted by world leaders in 2005
Worked examples
1. How many years did the Thirty Years War last, and when did it end?
It began in 1618 and ended in 1648, so it lasted 1648 − 1618 = 30 years.
2. Give one strength and one weakness of peace by treaty.
Strength: it sets clear rules and ends the fighting. Weakness: it works only if the parties keep obeying it; nothing enforces it by itself.
3. Why did the League of Nations fail but the UN still exists?
The League had no force of its own, some strong countries were not members, and it needed everyone to agree. The UN has the Security Council which can act and has wider membership, though the veto still limits it.
4. A Security Council vote has 9 in favour, 5 against and 1 abstention. One of the "yes" votes is a permanent member and none of the permanent members vetoed. Does the decision pass?
A decision needs at least 9 votes in favour and no veto from a permanent member. Here there are 9 yes votes and no veto, so it passes.
5. Name the four steps of the UN peace ladder shown in the 3D.
Prevent, keep peace, protect people, rebuild.
6. The Security Council has 15 members and 5 are permanent. How many are elected, and what fraction are permanent?
Elected: 15 − 5 = 10. Permanent fraction: 5 ÷ 15 = 1/3.
Common mistakes
- Thinking the Peace of Westphalia created a world government. It set rules between independent states.
- Saying the UN can force any country to obey. It can act only with Security Council agreement, and a veto can block it.
- Thinking "peace" only means no fighting. Lasting peace also needs justice and trust.
- Mixing up the League of Nations (1920) and the United Nations (1945).