India's External Relations

International context

India became independent in 1947 just as the Cold War began: a struggle, without direct war, between the USA-led western bloc and the USSR-led eastern bloc. Both blocs wanted new nations as allies.

• India had just come out of colonial rule and valued its freedom to decide.
• It was poor and needed peace and help from all sides to develop.
• The Constitution (Article 51) asks the state to promote international peace and respect international law.
• Nehru, as PM and foreign minister (1946-64), shaped the policy.

Policy of non-alignment

Non-alignment means not joining any military alliance of the two blocs and deciding each issue on its merits. It is not neutrality: India took active positions, for example, against colonialism and racism (apartheid).

Afro-Asian unity

• Asian Relations Conference, New Delhi (1947).
• Bandung Conference, Indonesia (1955).
• First NAM summit, Belgrade (1961). Founders: Nehru (India), Nasser (Egypt), Tito (Yugoslavia), Sukarno (Indonesia), Nkrumah (Ghana).

Criticism and change

Critics said India was unprincipled or leaned towards the USSR. After 1962 India took help from the USA, and in 1971 signed a 20-year friendship treaty with the USSR. Still, India kept its independent voice.

Relations with neighbours

China

• 1950: China took control of Tibet; India accepted it.
• 1954: Panchsheel: five principles of peaceful coexistence (respect for territory, non-aggression, non-interference, equality and mutual benefit, peaceful coexistence).
• 1959: Dalai Lama came to India. Border disputes in Aksai Chin and the eastern sector.
• October 1962: China attacked; India faced a setback. Defence minister V.K. Krishna Menon resigned; the Congress lost some by-elections; the Communist Party split in 1964.
• Ties were restored step by step; Rajiv Gandhi visited China in 1988.

Pakistan

• 1947-48: conflict over Kashmir; a ceasefire line was drawn with UN help.
• 1960: Indus Waters Treaty, signed by Nehru and Ayub Khan with World Bank help. It has lasted through tensions.
• 1965 war; Tashkent Agreement (January 1966) between Lal Bahadur Shastri and Ayub Khan, with Soviet help. Shastri died in Tashkent.
• 1971: the army crackdown in East Pakistan sent about 80 lakh refugees to India. India signed the Indo-Soviet treaty (August 1971), war came in December, and Bangladesh became free. Shimla Agreement (1972): Indira Gandhi and Z.A. Bhutto agreed to settle issues bilaterally.
• 1999 Kargil conflict.

Other neighbours

India had close ties with Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka and helped Bangladesh after 1971.

Nuclear policy

• Nehru and scientist Homi J. Bhabha started a nuclear programme for peaceful uses, and opposed nuclear weapons.
• China tested in 1964. The NPT (1968) allowed only five powers (USA, USSR, UK, France, China) to keep weapons. India called it discriminatory and refused to sign.
• May 1974: first test at Pokhran, called a 'peaceful nuclear explosion'.
• India also refused the CTBT (1996).
• May 1998: more tests (Pokhran-II); India declared itself a nuclear weapon state. Policy: no first use, credible minimum deterrence, and support for global disarmament.

Try it

In the free-play timeline, stop at each year and say aloud whether the event made relations better or worse. Then make your own 8-card timeline on paper.

Key formulas and definitions

• Non-alignment ≠ neutrality: no military bloc, independent judgement
• NAM: Belgrade 1961 (Nehru, Nasser, Tito, Sukarno, Nkrumah)
• Panchsheel 1954 → war 1962
• Indus Waters Treaty 1960; Tashkent 1966; Shimla 1972
• 1971: Indo-Soviet treaty; Bangladesh born
• Nuclear: 1974 Pokhran-I; 1998 Pokhran-II; no first use; NPT not signed

Worked examples

Common mistakes

• Calling non-alignment neutrality.
• Mixing Tashkent (1966, after 1965 war) with Shimla (1972, after 1971 war).
• Saying India signed the NPT. It did not.
• Thinking Panchsheel was with Pakistan. It was with China (1954).