CBSE Class 12 Political Science

Chapters: 2

1. Contemporary World Politics

The End of Bipolarity · Contemporary Centres of Power · Contemporary South Asia · International Organisations · Security in the Contemporary World · Environment and Natural Resources · Globalisation

The Cold War (1945–1991) – The Cold War was a long contest (1945–1991) between two superpowers: the USA with its Western allies (capitalism, multi-party elections) and the USSR with its Eastern allies (communism, one-party rule). They never fought each other directly. Instead they formed rival alliances (NATO, Warsaw Pact), raced to build nuclear weapons and reach space, backed opposite sides in proxy wars (Korea, Vietnam, Afghanistan) and came close to nuclear war in Cuba in 1962. Many new nations, led by India and others, stayed non-aligned. Détente eased tension in the 1970s. Reforms in the USSR, the fall of the Berlin Wall (1989) and the break-up of the USSR (1991) ended it.
The End of Bipolarity – Bipolarity means a world with two power centres, the USA and the USSR. The Soviet system gave jobs and welfare but little freedom, and its economy fell behind. Gorbachev's reforms opened the system, and in 1991 the USSR broke into 15 countries. The shift to capitalism by 'shock therapy' caused great hardship. The Cold War ended, the USA became the only superpower, and India kept strong ties with Russia and the new Central Asian states.
Contemporary Centres of Power – After 1991 the USA was the only superpower, but new centres of power rose. The European Union joined European states in one market with its own currency and parliament. ASEAN brought ten South-East Asian states together in the 'ASEAN Way'. China grew into a giant economy after reforms in 1978. Japan and South Korea became rich through technology and exports. These centres limit the power of any one country.
Contemporary South Asia – South Asia has eight countries that share geography and history. Democracy has had ups and downs in the neighbourhood: army rule in Pakistan and Bangladesh at times, a move from monarchy to republic in Nepal, and steady elections with ethnic war in Sri Lanka. India, the largest country, has disputes and co-operation with each neighbour. SAARC and SAFTA try to build peace through regional co-operation and trade.
International Organisations – International organisations help countries co-operate on peace, money, trade and rights. The UN was set up in 1945 after the League of Nations failed; it has six main organs, and the Security Council's five permanent members hold a veto. Reform of the UN, especially the Security Council, is needed because the world has changed since 1945, and India claims a permanent seat. The IMF, World Bank, WTO, ILO and IAEA handle money, development, trade, workers and nuclear safety, while NGOs like Amnesty International watch over human rights.
Security in the Contemporary World – Security means freedom from threats to things we value. Traditional security protects the state from military threats outside and disorder inside, using deterrence, defence, balance of power and alliances. Non-traditional security widens the circle to protect people (human security) and the planet (global security). New threats such as terrorism, rights abuse, poverty, migration, epidemics and climate change cross borders, so they need co-operative security. India's strategy combines military strength, international rules, internal peace and development.
Environment and Natural Resources – Environmental problems like climate change and ozone loss cross borders, so they became part of world politics. Global commons such as the high seas, atmosphere, Antarctica and outer space belong to no one and are hard to protect. The principle of common but differentiated responsibilities says all countries must act but rich countries, who polluted first, should do more. India stresses low emissions per person and the right to develop, while acting on clean energy. Environmental movements, struggles over oil, minerals and water, and the rights of indigenous peoples are all part of this politics.
Globalisation – Globalisation means growing flows of goods, money, ideas and people across the world, which make the world more connected. Technology is its main cause. It affects politics (the role of the state), the economy (trade, investment, inequality) and culture (sameness versus mixing). India opened its economy in 1991 after following protectionism. Globalisation is resisted by groups on the Left and Right and by movements like the World Social Forum, while many ask for fair globalisation.

2. Politics in India since Independence

Challenges of Nation-Building · Era of One-Party Dominance · Politics of Planned Development · India's External Relations · Challenges to and Restoration of the Congress System · The Crisis of Democratic Order · Regional Aspirations · Recent Developments in Indian Politics

Challenges of Nation-Building – In 1947 India faced three big challenges: keeping the country united, building democracy and bringing development for all. Partition split the land and displaced about 80 lakh people, so refugees had to be helped to start again. More than 560 princely states had to be joined to India, mostly through talks and the Instrument of Accession. Then people demanded states based on language, which led to Andhra in 1953 and the States Reorganisation Act of 1956.
Era of One-Party Dominance – India's first general election (1951-52) was the biggest election the world had seen, held for about 17 crore voters. The Congress won it and the next two elections, so the years till 1967 are called the era of one-party dominance. Congress dominated because of its freedom-struggle legacy, its network and its nature as a social and ideological coalition that allowed factions. Small opposition parties, such as the Socialists, Communists, Bharatiya Jana Sangh and Swatantra Party, kept democracy alive by criticism.
Indian Economy 1950–1990: Planning and Policies – After 1947 India chose a mixed economy guided by five-year plans. The plans aimed at growth, modernisation, self-reliance and equity. In agriculture, land reforms and the Green Revolution raised food output. In industry, the Industrial Policy Resolution 1956 gave the public sector the lead, with licensing and protection for small-scale industry. Trade followed import substitution behind tariffs and quotas.
Politics of Planned Development – After independence India debated how to develop: the market road or the state-led road. It chose a mixed economy and set up the Planning Commission in 1950. The First Five Year Plan focused on agriculture and irrigation; the Second Plan, led by P.C. Mahalanobis, pushed heavy industry through the public sector. People argued about agriculture versus industry and public versus private. The results were a base of industry, partly successful land reforms, the Green Revolution and new political voices of farmers.
India's External Relations – India became free as the Cold War started. Nehru's answer was non-alignment: stay out of both military blocs, keep freedom of choice, and support colonies fighting for freedom. With China, the friendship of Panchsheel (1954) ended in the 1962 war. With Pakistan there were wars in 1947-48, 1965 and 1971, which created Bangladesh, but also agreements like the Indus Waters Treaty, Tashkent and Shimla. India's nuclear policy moved from peaceful use to tests in 1974 and 1998, with a promise of no first use.
Challenges to and Restoration of the Congress System – In the 1960s the Congress system faced big tests. After Nehru died in 1964, power passed peacefully to Shastri and then Indira Gandhi. In 1967 Congress lost nine states in a 'political earthquake', coalition governments and defections followed. In 1969 the party split between the Syndicate (Congress O) and Indira Gandhi (Congress R). In 1971 Indira's 'Garibi Hatao' won 352 seats, restoring Congress dominance, but now around one popular leader rather than a coalition of factions.
The Crisis of Democratic Order – In the early 1970s rising prices, student protests in Gujarat and Bihar, JP's call for Total Revolution, a railway strike and clashes with the judiciary built pressure on the government. After the Allahabad High Court set aside Indira Gandhi's election, an Emergency was declared on 25 June 1975 under Article 352. The press was censored, leaders were jailed and rights were suspended. In 1977 voters defeated the Congress and the Janata Party formed the government. The lessons: democracy is hard to end in India, emergency rules were tightened by the 44th Amendment, and people became alert about civil liberties.
Regional Aspirations – India is a nation of many regions. Instead of fearing regional demands, Indian democracy tries to accommodate them. Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab and the North-East saw demands for autonomy, secession or action against outsiders, sometimes with violence. Most of these were handled through talks and accords, such as the Rajiv-Longowal Accord (1985), the Assam Accord (1985) and the Mizo Accord (1986). The Dravidian movement, Goa and Sikkim show other paths. The lesson: regional aspirations are part of democracy, and power-sharing and fair development keep India united.
Recent Developments in Indian Politics – In 1989 the Congress lost its majority and the era of coalitions began. The 1990s brought the Mandal decision on OBC reservation, the rise of OBC and Dalit parties like the BSP, economic reforms, and the rise of the BJP. From 1989 to 2014, National Front, United Front, NDA and UPA coalitions ruled. A consensus grew on economic reforms, OBC claims, the role of state parties and practical alliances. In 2014 and 2019 the BJP won majorities on its own; in 2024 it formed an NDA coalition government again.