What is federalism?
Federalism means power is divided between a government for the whole country and governments for its parts (states). Each level governs the same citizens but on different subjects.
In a unitary system there is one level of government, or the lower levels only follow the centre.
Key features of federalism
- Two or more levels of government.
- Each level has its own powers in law-making, taxes and administration.
- Powers are written in the Constitution; one level cannot change them alone.
- Courts settle disputes between levels.
- Each level has its own sources of money.
- It aims to keep unity and also respect regional variety.
Two routes to federation
Coming together: independent states join to form a bigger unit (USA, Switzerland). Holding together: a large country divides power among its parts (India, Spain, Belgium). In holding-together federations, the centre is usually stronger.
What makes India a federal country?
The Constitution does not use the word 'federation', but it creates one. India had two levels at first (Union and States). A third level, panchayats and municipalities, was added later.
- Union List: subjects of national importance, like defence, foreign affairs, banking, currency. Only Parliament makes laws.
- State List: local subjects like police, trade within the state, agriculture, irrigation. State legislatures make laws.
- Concurrent List: common subjects like education, forests, marriage, adoption. Both can make laws; in a clash the Union law wins.
- Residuary subjects: new subjects not in any list, like computer software, go to the Union.
Some units, like Union Territories, have less power and are run more by the centre. Changing the basic power-sharing needs Parliament with a two-thirds majority and approval of at least half of the states. The judiciary can settle disputes.
How federalism is practised
Linguistic states
In 1947 many state borders were old and unplanned. From 1956, many states were created so that people speaking the same language lived in one state. Some were made for culture, geography or ethnicity. At first leaders feared this would split the country; it actually made the country more united and easier to govern.
Language policy
No language got the status of 'national language'. Hindi is the official language, spoken as a mother tongue by about 40% of people. 22 languages are listed as Scheduled Languages. English continued along with Hindi for official work. The government did not force Hindi on non-Hindi states. States have their own official languages.
Centre–state relations
For a long time the same party ruled at the centre and in most states, so states had little freedom. Sometimes the centre dismissed state governments of rival parties. After 1990, many regional parties grew and coalition governments came at the centre. This gave a new culture of respect for state governments. A 1994 Supreme Court judgement also made it hard to dismiss state governments without reason.
Decentralisation in India
Decentralisation means taking power from the centre and state and giving it to local government. Many problems, like a broken hand pump, are best solved by people who live there.
The 1992 amendment made local government stronger
- Regular elections to local bodies are compulsory.
- Seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes.
- At least one-third of all seats are for women.
- An independent State Election Commission runs these elections.
- States must share some powers and money with local bodies.
Panchayati raj
A village (or group of villages) has a gram panchayat headed by a sarpanch. It works under the gram sabha: all voters of the village, who approve its budget and review its work. Several panchayats form a panchayat samiti (block), and all samitis of a district form the zila parishad. In towns there are municipalities; big cities have municipal corporations led by a mayor.
Problems remain: gram sabhas do not meet often, and states give little money. Still, it is a big experiment in democracy, with lakhs of elected members.
Key formulas and definitions
- Federalism: power divided between central and state (and local) governments by the Constitution.
- Union List: national subjects (defence, banking, currency, foreign affairs).
- State List: local subjects (police, agriculture, irrigation, trade within state).
- Concurrent List: both make laws (education, forests, marriage); Union law wins in a clash.
- Residuary subjects: not in any list; go to the Union.
- Coming-together vs holding-together federations.
- Decentralisation: giving power to local government (1992 amendment; one-third seats for women).
Worked examples
1. A state makes a law on education and Parliament makes a different one. Which law applies?
Education is in the Concurrent List. When the two laws clash, the Union law is followed.
2. Why is computer software a Union subject?
It came after the Constitution was written, so it is not in any list. Such residuary subjects go to the Union.
3. Is India a coming-together or holding-together federation?
Holding-together. India was one large country that divided power among its states.
4. Why did making states by language not break India?
People felt their language and culture were respected, so they trusted the country more. Governing became easier because people in one state spoke the same language.
5. Give two reasons local government is useful.
Local people know local problems best, and it lets more people take part in decisions, which deepens democracy.
Common mistakes
- Saying Hindi is India's national language. The Constitution gives no language that status; Hindi is an official language.
- Putting education in the State List. It is in the Concurrent List.
- Thinking the centre can change the power division alone. It needs a two-thirds majority in Parliament and approval of half the states.
- Confusing gram sabha with gram panchayat. Gram sabha is all village voters; the panchayat is the elected council.