Yuan Shikai takes power
Yuan Shikai (1859-1916) was a former Qing general and official who had trained the modern Beiyang Army. In February 1912 he helped to bring about the emperor’s abdication, and Sun Yat-sen handed him the presidency in March 1912. His power came from the army.
The new parliament was dominated by the Guomindang (Nationalist Party), which Sun and Song Jiaoren had built. In March 1913 Song Jiaoren was shot dead; many believed Yuan’s circle was behind it. A short revolt by southern leaders, the "Second Revolution", was crushed. In November 1913 Yuan banned the Guomindang, and in January 1914 he dissolved parliament. A new "constitutional compact" in 1914 gave him huge powers.
The failed monarchy (1915-1916)
In January 1915 Japan, busy because Europe was at war, presented the Twenty-One Demands to China. Yuan accepted a reduced list in May 1915. Many Chinese were angry that he gave in.
Soon Yuan’s supporters began to push for a monarchy. In December 1915 he accepted the throne and announced the new era name Hongxian, to begin on 1 January 1916. The reaction was strong: military leader Cai E and others rose in Yunnan, and provinces in the south and southwest declared independence in the "National Protection War". Even Yuan’s own generals held back. On 22 March 1916 he gave up the throne after about 80 days, and he died on 6 June 1916.
Another attempt came in July 1917, when General Zhang Xun briefly put the boy Puyi back on the throne for about 12 days. It was swept away at once. After these failures, monarchy never again had a real chance in China.
Warlord division (1916-1928)
When Yuan died, no one commanded the whole army. The Beiyang Army split into cliques. The main ones were the Zhili clique (leaders such as Cao Kun and Wu Peifu), the Anhui clique (Duan Qirui) and the Fengtian clique in the northeast (Zhang Zuolin). Other regional leaders, such as Yan Xishan in Shanxi, held smaller areas. These generals are called warlords.
- A government in Beijing still existed, but it was controlled by whichever clique held the capital.
- Warlords fought wars, such as the Zhili-Anhui war (1920) and the Zhili-Fengtian wars (1922 and 1924).
- They raised heavy taxes to pay their soldiers, and ordinary people suffered from fighting and robbery.
- Some warlords were backed by foreign powers, which kept the country divided.
The warlord era only began to end with the Northern Expedition of the Guomindang (1926-1928), which you will meet in later lessons.
Try it
Draw a tree on paper. At the trunk write "Beiyang Army, 1916". Draw three big branches and label them Zhili, Anhui and Fengtian, then small twigs for local warlords. Compare with the 3D in step 4.
Key formulas and definitions
- Key dates: Mar 1912 Yuan president; Mar 1913 Song Jiaoren killed; Nov 1913 Guomindang banned; Jan 1914 parliament closed; Jan 1915 Twenty-One Demands; Dec 1915-Mar 1916 monarchy; Jun 1916 Yuan dies; Jul 1917 Zhang Xun; 1916-1928 warlord era.
- Key terms: Beiyang Army (Yuan’s army), clique (a group of generals), warlord (a general ruling a region by force).
- Hongxian = the era name Yuan chose as emperor.
Worked examples
1. List two steps by which Yuan Shikai gathered power.
He banned the Guomindang (November 1913) and dissolved parliament (January 1914). He also relied on the Beiyang Army, which was loyal to him.
2. Why did Yuan’s monarchy fail?
People saw it as a betrayal of the republic. Provinces revolted starting in Yunnan, and even his generals did not support him. After about 80 days he gave up the throne.
3. Name the three main warlord cliques.
The Zhili clique, the Anhui clique and the Fengtian clique.
Common mistakes
- Saying Yuan Shikai was an elected emperor. He took the throne without public support and it failed.
- Mixing up Yuan’s attempt (1915-1916) and Zhang Xun’s (1917, 12 days).
- Thinking the Republic ended in 1916. A government existed but warlords held the real power.
- Writing that warlords were one united army. They fought each other.