Reformers and aims
The Hundred Days' Reform (1898) was a short period when the young Guangxu Emperor tried to modernise China from the top.
Why was reform wanted?
- In 1895 China lost the war with Japan, even after thirty years of building arsenals and a navy. Many scholars felt that new machines alone were not enough.
- In 1897-98 foreign powers took ports and leased land. People feared China might be cut into pieces.
Who were the reformers?
- Kang Youwei, a scholar who argued that China needed to change its laws and government, as Japan and Russia had. In 1895 he and other exam candidates in Beijing signed a petition.
- Liang Qichao, his student, a writer who ran newspapers and spread new ideas.
- Tan Sitong and other younger officials who helped write the orders.
- The Guangxu Emperor, who read their memorials and agreed to act.
What did they want?
A stronger and modern China: new schools and exams, a better army, industry and trade, a free press, and more efficient government. Many wanted a constitutional monarchy, where the emperor shares power with a parliament, but this was not fully ordered during the Hundred Days.
Reform decrees
From 11 June to 21 September 1898 (103 days) the emperor issued dozens of orders. The main areas were:
- Exams: the old eight-legged essay was dropped, and essays on current affairs were set instead.
- Schools: modern schools were ordered in cities, and the Imperial University of Peking was founded.
- Army: troops were to be trained and equipped in the modern way.
- Farming: bureaus were to spread new methods and crops.
- Industry: mines, railways and factories were encouraged and inventors protected.
- Press: newspapers and translation of foreign books were encouraged.
- Trade: trade offices were to help merchants and a modern budget was planned.
- Government offices: useless offices were to be cut, and officials told to work well.
Many of these orders were never carried out in the provinces. Cutting offices also made many officials angry because they would lose jobs.
Failure of the reform
The reform ended after 103 days. Here is why.
- Too fast: so many orders in a few weeks that officials could not carry them out.
- No force: the emperor had little real power. Kang and Liang had no army and little court experience.
- Strong opponents: Empress Dowager Cixi held great power behind the throne. Officials who feared losing jobs and army chiefs such as Ronglu stood with her. Yuan Shikai, a modern army commander, did not back the plan against her.
On 21 September 1898 Cixi took power again, put the emperor under guard in the palace and cancelled most orders. Tan Sitong and five others were executed. Kang and Liang escaped abroad, helped by foreign friends. The Imperial University of Peking was kept.
Significance
The reform failed, but it still mattered.
- Showed the limits of change from the top: a reform needs allies, money, army support and time. Without them, it can be cancelled in a day.
- A lasting result: the Imperial University of Peking became today's Peking University.
- New ideas spread: Kang and Liang kept writing from abroad. Their ideas of a constitution, schools and a modern state were read by many Chinese.
- The court changed course: after the Boxer uprising (1899-1901) the court itself began wider reforms, the New Policies from 1901. These included new schools and ending the old exam system in 1905.
- A step towards 1911: many people decided that a court which cancelled reform could not lead change, and turned to revolution.
Key formulas and definitions
- Why: defeat 1895 + foreign pressure 1897-98 + petition and new ideas + a listening emperor
- Days: 11 June to 21 September 1898 = 103 days
- Orders: exams, schools, army, farming, industry, press, trade, offices
- Failure: too fast + no force (no army) + strong opponents (Cixi, army chiefs, old officials)
- Result: coup 21 Sept 1898; six executed; university kept; New Policies from 1901
Worked examples
1. Easy. Who were the main leaders of the Hundred Days' Reform?
The Guangxu Emperor, who issued the orders, and the scholars Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, who gave the ideas. Tan Sitong and a few young officials helped write the orders.
2. Medium. Name four areas where reform orders were made and say what changed in one of them.
Four areas: exams, schools, army, industry (also farming, press, trade, government offices). In exams the old eight-legged essay was dropped and essays on current affairs were set. In schools, modern schools were ordered and the Imperial University of Peking was founded.
3. Hard. Explain why the reform failed after only 103 days.
Step 1: it was too fast. Dozens of orders came in a few weeks and the provinces could not follow. Step 2: the emperor and the reformers had no army and little court power. Step 3: strong opponents, Cixi, officials who feared losing jobs and army chiefs such as Ronglu, stood together. Step 4: on 21 September 1898 Cixi took power again, put the emperor under guard and cancelled most orders. Six reformers were executed and Kang and Liang escaped abroad.
Common mistakes
- Mixing up the Hundred Days' Reform (1898, a short reform from the top) with the Self-Strengthening Movement (1861-95, tools and factories by officials).
- Saying the reform lasted a hundred days exactly. It lasted about 103 days, from 11 June to 21 September 1898.
- Saying nothing came of it. The Imperial University of Peking stayed, and the court later began wider reforms.
- Blaming only Cixi. A good answer also mentions the speed of the orders, the lack of an army and the fear of old officials.