A time of new ideas (6th century BCE)
The period around the 6th century BCE was a turning point. Thinkers like Zarathustra in Iran, Kong Zi in China and Socrates in Greece lived around this time. In India, many new teachers appeared.
Older traditions
- Vedic sacrifices: early rituals were done by households; bigger ones (like rajasuya and ashvamedha) by chiefs and kings, with Brahmana priests.
- Upanishads: thinkers asked about the meaning of life, the soul (atman) and the universe (brahman), and rebirth.
Debates and discussions
Teachers travelled and debated in halls called kutagarashala (hut with a pointed roof) or in groves. Some, like the fatalists (everything is fixed) and materialists (nothing exists after death), argued against the Vedic ideas. Buddhist texts mention 64 sects or schools of thought.
Jainism: the message of Mahavira
Vardhamana Mahavira is the 24th tirthankara ('one who guides people across the river of existence'). Jaina ideas existed before him.
- The whole world is alive: even stones, rocks and water have life.
- Ahimsa (non-violence) to all beings, including insects and plants, is central.
- The cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped by karma. To escape it, one must give up desires and follow strict discipline.
- Five vows: no killing, no stealing, no lying, no owning property, and brahmacharya (self-control).
Jainism spread to many parts of India, supported by traders. Jaina scholars wrote in Prakrit, Sanskrit and Tamil, and Jaina images and temples were built.
The Buddha and the sangha
Siddhartha, a Sakya prince, was moved by seeing an old man, a sick man, a corpse and a monk. He left the palace, tried hard fasting, then chose the middle path and gained enlightenment. He was then called the Buddha, the enlightened one.
His teachings
- The world keeps changing (anicca); nothing is permanent.
- Life has sorrow (dukkha), caused by desire. Ending desire ends sorrow.
- Follow a moderate path, between extreme pleasure and extreme pain.
- Kindness and good conduct matter more than rituals; he did not discuss god.
- The goal is nibbana, ending the ego and desire.
These teachings were collected in the Tipitaka ('three baskets'): Vinaya Pitaka (rules for monks), Sutta Pitaka (teachings) and Abhidhamma Pitaka (philosophy).
The sangha
The Buddha founded the sangha, a group of monks (bhikkhus) who lived simply on alms. Later, women were allowed in as bhikkhunis, after Ananda persuaded the Buddha; his foster mother Mahapajapati Gotami was the first. Members came from all backgrounds (kings, rich men, labourers, slaves). Inside the sangha all were equal.
Stupas and Buddhist sculpture
Why stupas?
Some places were sacred because of the Buddha's life: Lumbini (birth), Bodh Gaya (enlightenment), Sarnath (first sermon) and Kusinagara (death, mahaparinibbana). Relics of the Buddha were buried in mounds called stupas. Ashoka is said to have built stupas in many places.
Parts of a stupa
- Anda: half-round mound of earth, with relics inside.
- Harmika: balcony-like platform on top, the home of the gods.
- Yashti and chhatri: a mast with umbrellas.
- Railing (vedika): separates the sacred space.
- Toranas: four carved gateways at Sanchi. Devotees entered from the east and walked clockwise (pradakshina).
Stupas were built from gifts by kings, merchants, craftspeople (like ivory workers), monks and nuns, recorded in inscriptions.
How Sanchi survived
Amaravati's stupa was taken apart in the 19th century and its pieces moved to different places. Sanchi was saved: the rulers of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and Sultan Jehan Begum, gave money to preserve it, and H.H. Cole argued for keeping monuments in place.
Reading sculpture
Early sculptors used symbols: an empty seat (meditation), a stupa (mahaparinibbana), the wheel (first sermon at Sarnath), a tree (enlightenment). Jataka stories (past lives of the Buddha) are carved on the gates. Popular traditions also appear: the salabhanjika (a woman holding a tree branch, a sign of fertility), elephants, and serpents.
New religious traditions
Mahayana Buddhism
By the early centuries CE, the Buddha came to be seen as a saviour. Bodhisattvas were seen as kind beings who help others reach nirvana. Images of the Buddha were made (Mathura and Taxila). This new way was called Mahayana ('great vehicle'); the older way was called Hinayana ('lesser vehicle') by them, while its followers called it Theravada.
Puranic Hinduism
Vaishnavism (Vishnu as the main deity, with avatars) and Shaivism (Shiva, often shown as a linga) grew. The Puranas told stories in simple Sanskrit for everyone, including women and Shudras.
Temples
Early temples had a small square room, the garbhagriha, with a door for worship. Later a tall top, the shikhara, was added. Examples: Deogarh (Uttar Pradesh, 5th century CE), rock-cut caves like Barabar (for Ajivikas), Ellora's Kailashnatha temple (8th century).
Understanding the unfamiliar
European scholars in the 19th century often judged Indian images by Greek art. Historians now try to understand sculptures with the help of texts, and are careful where texts are missing.
Key formulas and definitions
- Tirthankara = Jaina teacher who guides across the river of existence (Mahavira = 24th)
- Ahimsa = non-violence to all living beings
- Middle path = avoid extremes of pleasure and pain
- Tipitaka = Vinaya + Sutta + Abhidhamma
- Sangha = community of bhikkhus and bhikkhunis
- Stupa = anda + harmika + chhatri + railing + toranas
- Pradakshina = walking clockwise around a sacred place
- Mahayana = Buddha as saviour, Bodhisattvas, images
Worked examples
1. Why did so many new ideas appear around the 6th century BCE?
Step 1: new states and cities were growing, bringing new questions. Step 2: some people were unhappy with costly Vedic sacrifices. Step 3: thinkers travelled and debated in open halls. So teachers like Mahavira and the Buddha found listeners.
2. Explain how a stupa is used in worship.
Step 1: relics of the Buddha are kept inside the anda. Step 2: devotees enter from a torana. Step 3: they walk clockwise around the mound (pradakshina) along the railing path. Step 4: the carvings on gates remind them of the Buddha's life and past lives.
3. How do we know the Buddha is present in a panel with no human figure?
Symbols stand for him: an empty seat means he is meditating, a wheel means his first sermon, a tree means enlightenment, a stupa means his passing. Texts about his life help historians read these symbols.
4. How was Mahayana different from early Buddhism?
Early Buddhism stressed one's own effort to reach nibbana and used symbols. Mahayana saw the Buddha as a saviour, worshipped his images and Bodhisattvas, and believed in help from them.
Common mistakes
- Thinking Mahavira founded Jainism. He was the 24th tirthankara; the tradition is older.
- Saying early Buddhist art showed the Buddha as a man. It used symbols first; images came later.
- Mixing up anda and harmika. Anda is the dome; harmika is the small platform on top.
- Thinking the sangha was only for men. Women joined as bhikkhunis.