Causes: why did the Crusades begin?
- Byzantine call for help: the Seljuk Turks beat the Byzantine army at Manzikert (1071) and took much of Anatolia. Emperor Alexios I asked the West for soldiers.
- The Pope's aims: at Clermont (1095) Pope Urban II called for an armed pilgrimage to Jerusalem. He also hoped to unite Christians under Rome and stop knights fighting each other at home.
- Religious reasons: crusaders were promised forgiveness of sins (an indulgence). Jerusalem was holy to Christians, Jews and Muslims.
- Other reasons: land, wealth and adventure for younger sons of nobles; trade for Italian cities.
The People's Crusade (1096) went first and was destroyed. The main armies of nobles took Nicaea and Antioch and captured Jerusalem in 1099, with great killing of its people.
The crusader states (Outremer) and the Second Crusade
Four crusader states were set up: the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch, the County of Tripoli and the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Europeans called them Outremer ("overseas").
They were few in number, so they built strong castles and relied on military orders: the Knights Templar and Knights Hospitaller, monks who were also soldiers. Italian ports such as Venice and Genoa supplied ships and trade.
In 1144 Zengi, ruler of Mosul and Aleppo, captured Edessa. The Second Crusade (1147–49), led by the kings of France and Germany, failed badly at Damascus.
The Muslim counter-crusade and Saladin
At first the Muslim world was divided between rival rulers. Unity grew step by step:
- Zengi (Edessa, 1144) started the idea of jihad against the crusaders.
- Nur ad-Din, his son, united Syria and took Damascus (1154).
- Saladin (Salah ad-Din) took control of Egypt (1169) and then Syria, surrounding the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
In 1187 Saladin destroyed the crusader army at the Horns of Hattin and then took Jerusalem. He let many residents leave by paying a ransom, which made him respected even in Europe.
The Third and Fourth Crusades, and the end
Third Crusade (1189–92): led by Richard I of England, Philip II of France and Frederick Barbarossa (who drowned on the way). Richard took Acre (1191) and won at Arsuf, but did not attack Jerusalem. The Treaty of Jaffa (1192) left Jerusalem with Saladin but let Christian pilgrims visit.
Fourth Crusade (1202–04): the crusaders could not pay Venice for ships, attacked Zara, and then joined a Byzantine power struggle. In 1204 they sacked Constantinople, a Christian city, and deepened the split between the Catholic and Orthodox churches.
Later crusades achieved little, and Acre fell in 1291.
Effects
- Many deaths and lasting bitterness between faiths; attacks on Jewish communities in Europe.
- Byzantium was weakened, helping its later fall (1453).
- More trade, banking and contact: Italian city-states grew rich; Europe learned from Arabic science and books.
- Kings grew stronger as many nobles died or sold land.
Key formulas and definitions
- 1071 Manzikert → 1095 Clermont → 1099 Jerusalem taken
- Crusader states: Edessa, Antioch, Tripoli, Jerusalem (Outremer)
- 1144 Edessa falls → Second Crusade 1147–49 fails
- Zengi → Nur ad-Din → Saladin → 1187 Hattin, Jerusalem retaken
- Third Crusade 1189–92 (Acre, Treaty of Jaffa) · Fourth 1202–04 (Constantinople) · 1291 Acre falls
Worked examples
1. Give a cause-and-effect chain from Manzikert to the First Crusade.
Seljuks win at Manzikert (1071) → Byzantium loses Anatolia → Emperor Alexios asks the Pope for soldiers → Urban II calls a crusade at Clermont (1095) → armies march (1096) → Jerusalem taken (1099).
2. Why did the crusader states depend on military orders and castles?
Few Europeans settled there, so they had small armies. Castles let a few soldiers hold land, and the Templars and Hospitallers gave a permanent, trained force.
3. How many years did the Kingdom of Jerusalem hold the city in the first period?
From 1099 to 1187: 1187 − 1099 = 88 years.
4. Explain why Muslim unity was the key to Saladin's success.
While Egypt and Syria had different rulers, the crusaders could play them against each other. Once Saladin ruled both, he surrounded the kingdom and could gather a much larger army, which won at Hattin.
5. Why is the Fourth Crusade called a crusade that went wrong?
It never reached the Holy Land. Debts to Venice and Byzantine politics led it to attack and sack Constantinople, a Christian city, in 1204.
Common mistakes
- Thinking there was only one crusade. There were several main expeditions over about 200 years.
- Saying the crusaders held Jerusalem until 1291. They lost it in 1187; 1291 is the fall of Acre.
- Believing the Fourth Crusade fought Muslims. It sacked Christian Constantinople.
- Giving only religious causes. Political, economic and personal reasons mattered too.