Causes of the Civil War
There was no single cause. After October 1917 many groups lost out and many feared the new rule:
- The Bolsheviks closed the Constituent Assembly, so many socialists and liberals saw them as breaking the promise of elections.
- The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918) gave away large areas to Germany. Many Russians were angry, even people who wanted peace.
- The Decree on Land took the land from landowners, banks and factories were taken over, and officers, officials and businessmen lost rank and property. Many wanted to win it back.
- Different groups had different aims: some wanted a return of the Tsar, some an elected government, some just their own region's freedom.
Stages of the war
- 1918 (first stage): Fronts form. In May the Czechoslovak Legion, soldiers travelling east along the railway, revolts and helps anti-Bolshevik governments in the Volga region and Siberia. Britain, France, the USA and Japan land troops in the north and the Far East.
- 1919 (peak): Admiral Kolchak attacks from Siberia, General Denikin from the south (reaching near Orel in October), General Yudenich towards Petrograd. The Red Army, built by Leon Trotsky with conscription and former tsarist officers, stops each in turn.
- 1920: Kolchak is captured and shot (February). Denikin's army breaks up. A Polish-Soviet war is fought (Treaty of Riga, March 1921). General Wrangel holds Crimea until November 1920, then the Whites leave.
- 1921–22 (end): Last fighting in the Far East (to October 1922). Peasant risings (Tambov) and the sailors' revolt in Kronstadt (March 1921) show anger at war communism. The USSR is formed in December 1922.
War communism
War communism (1918–1921) was the set of emergency policies the Bolsheviks used to feed the army and cities and win the war.
- Grain requisition (prodrazverstka): detachments took the peasants' surplus grain, often more than the surplus, and paid almost nothing.
- Nationalisation: first large industry, then nearly all factories, came under state control.
- Ban on private trade and food by rations (cards), with a black market on the side.
- Labour duty: work was made compulsory; wages were paid largely in goods.
- The Cheka (secret police) used terror against opponents. The Whites also used terror against their enemies.
The policy helped the Reds hold on, but peasants cut the area they sowed, since the state would take the crop. By 1921 there was famine.
Why the Reds won, and results
Why the Reds won: they held the central area with Moscow, Petrograd, most factories and the railway centre, so they could move troops quickly on short lines. They had one command and one party. The Whites were spread around the edges, disunited, and many peasants feared that a White victory would bring back the landlords. Foreign help was small and half-hearted.
Results:
- About 7–10 million deaths (estimates differ), from fighting, terror, hunger and disease. Famine in 1921–22 killed millions more in the Volga area.
- Industry fell to a small part of its 1913 level, and farms made much less. Cities shrank as people fled to villages.
- Around 1.5–2 million people emigrated.
- The Bolshevik party gained a strong, centralised state and the new country, the USSR, in 1922. War communism was given up in 1921 for the New Economic Policy (next lesson).
Key formulas and definitions
- Sides: Reds (Bolsheviks), Whites (anti-Bolshevik officers, landowners and others), Greens (peasant armies), foreign troops
- Stages: 1918 fronts form → 1919 Kolchak, Denikin, Yudenich → 1920 Wrangel and the Polish war → 1921–22 end and risings
- War communism = grain requisition + nationalised industry + ban on private trade + rationing + labour duty
- Results: about 7–10 million deaths; industry and farms ruined; Kronstadt revolt (1921) → New Economic Policy; USSR (1922)
Worked examples
1. Name three causes of the Civil War.
The closing of the Constituent Assembly, the Brest-Litovsk peace that gave up land, and the loss of land, property and power by landowners, officers and others after the revolution. (Also: forcible grain taking.)
2. Why did the Whites lose although they had help from foreign countries?
They were scattered around the edges and had no common plan or leader. Many peasants feared the landlords' return. Foreign help was small and was seen as foreign interference. The Reds held the centre and railways and had one command.
3. Why did war communism cause a food crisis?
The state took peasants' surplus grain and paid almost nothing. So peasants sowed less to keep what they grew. A drought in 1921 on top of this led to famine.
4. How did the Kronstadt revolt of March 1921 change policy?
Sailors at the naval base, once strong supporters of the Bolsheviks, demanded an end to requisitions and more freedom. The government crushed the revolt, but it also changed policy: that same month it announced the New Economic Policy.
Common mistakes
- Using "Whites" for foreign troops. Whites were Russian anti-Bolshevik forces; foreign troops were separate and fewer.
- Thinking the Civil War was only Reds against Whites. Greens (peasants), nationalist movements and foreign troops also took part.
- Mixing up war communism (1918–21, forced policies) with the New Economic Policy (from 1921, partly free market).
- Saying the war ended in 1918 when Russia left the world war. The Civil War ran to 1920–22.