The February Revolution (March 1917)
In early 1917 Petrograd was cold, hungry and tired of war. On 23 February (Old Style, 8 March by our calendar), International Women's Day, women textile workers marched for bread. Next days brought a general strike. The Tsar ordered the army to restore order, but soldiers joined the crowds. On 2 March (Old Style) Tsar Nicholas II gave up the throne. Russia had no Tsar.
Calendar note: Russia used the Julian calendar, 13 days behind the Gregorian one. That is why the "February" revolution is in March and the "October" revolution is in November in other countries' calendars.
Dual power and the months in between
Duma leaders formed the Provisional Government (first led by Prince Lvov, then from July by Alexander Kerensky). It promised elections to a Constituent Assembly but chose to continue the war. At the same time workers and soldiers elected councils called soviets. The Petrograd Soviet had huge influence over the army through its Order No. 1. This is called dual power.
- April: Lenin returned from abroad and put forward the April Theses: no support for the government, an end to the war, land for peasants, "all power to the soviets".
- July: street protests (the July Days) were put down and Bolsheviks were blamed.
- Late August: General Kornilov marched troops towards Petrograd. Many groups, including the Bolsheviks, helped stop him. The government looked weak and Bolshevik support rose.
The October Revolution (November 1917)
The Bolsheviks gained a majority in the Petrograd and Moscow soviets. Through a Military Revolutionary Committee they took bridges, the telegraph and railway stations on 25 October (Old Style, 7 November), and then the Winter Palace, where ministers sat. The Second Congress of Soviets declared the soviets the government. Fighting in Petrograd was brief, but the civil war soon followed (next lesson).
The first decrees
- Decree on Peace: asked all nations to end the war at once without taking land or demanding payments. Russia later signed a separate peace, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918).
- Decree on Land: abolished the private ownership of land by landlords; village committees were to divide the land among peasants.
- New government (Sovnarkom): a Council of People's Commissars headed by Lenin ran the country.
- Soon after: an eight-hour working day, workers' control of factories, banks taken over by the state, and the separation of church and state (January 1918).
The Constituent Assembly
Everyone had promised an elected assembly to write the new rules. Elections held in November 1917 were the first broad elections in Russian history. The Socialist Revolutionaries (backed by peasants) won about 40% of the seats, the Bolsheviks about 24%, and others the rest. The Assembly met on one day in January 1918. It refused to accept the soviets' decrees, and the Bolshevik government closed it the next day. From then on Russia was ruled by the Bolsheviks through the soviets, which led many opponents to take up arms.
Key formulas and definitions
- February 1917: strikes + soldiers join → Tsar gives up throne → Provisional Government + Petrograd Soviet (dual power)
- April 1917: Lenin's April Theses (no support for government, end war, land to peasants, all power to soviets)
- October 1917 (Old Style 25 Oct = 7 Nov): Bolsheviks take power; Decrees on Peace and on Land; Sovnarkom
- Constituent Assembly: elected Nov 1917 (SR ~40%, Bolsheviks ~24%), met 1 day in Jan 1918, closed
- Old calendar = new calendar − 13 days
Worked examples
1. Why is it called "dual power"?
After the Tsar fell, two centres of power existed at once: the Provisional Government, which had official authority, and the Petrograd Soviet, which had the support of workers and soldiers. Neither was fully in control.
2. The October Revolution happened on 25 October (Old Style). What was the date in our calendar?
Old Style is 13 days behind. 25 October + 13 days = 38 October = 7 November.
3. Why did Lenin's slogans "Peace, Land, Bread" win support?
Soldiers were tired of war, peasants wanted the landlords' land, and workers needed bread. Each slogan answered one group's main wish in two or three words.
4. Why did the Bolsheviks close the Constituent Assembly although it was elected?
The Assembly had a majority of other parties and refused to recognise the soviets' decrees. The Bolsheviks said real power lay with the soviets, so they closed it. Critics said this ended democratic choice.
Common mistakes
- Writing that the October Revolution was in October by our calendar. It was on 7 November (25 October Old Style).
- Mixing the two revolutions. February: Tsar falls, Provisional Government. October: Bolsheviks take power.
- Saying the Bolsheviks won the Constituent Assembly election. The Socialist Revolutionaries won more seats.
- Thinking Lenin led the February Revolution. He returned in April; February was a spontaneous rising.