Population and society
The census of 1897 was the first one for the whole empire. It counted about 126 million people. The empire was huge and had many nations. Russians were fewer than half of all people; there were also Ukrainians, Poles, Tatars, Jews, Georgians, Finns and many more.
About 8 of every 10 people were peasants who lived in villages. Only about 1 in 8 lived in a town. About 1 in 5 could read.
People were grouped into estates: nobles, clergy, merchants, townspeople and peasants. Each group had its own rights and duties. The nobles held much of the land and most high posts.
The economy: fast growth, old villages
In the 1890s Russia had an industrial boom. Industry grew by roughly 8 percent a year. New coal mines opened in the south (Donbas), oil came from Baku, and metal works grew in the Urals and the south. The railways grew from about 30 thousand km (1890) to over 50 thousand km (1900). The great Trans-Siberian Railway was started in 1891 to join the European part with the Far East.
But farming stayed old-fashioned. Wooden ploughs, small strips of land and poor harvests were common. A bad harvest could bring hunger, as in 1891–92. So Russia was strong in some parts and weak in others.
Sergei Witte and his policy
Sergei Witte was Minister of Finance from 1892 to 1903. He believed that Russia must catch up with Western Europe fast, and that only strong industry could do it. His four tools:
- Railways, built mostly by the state.
- A gold-backed ruble (1897): the ruble could be changed for gold, so foreign investors trusted it.
- Foreign loans and investment: money from France, Belgium, Britain and Germany built many factories.
- High customs duties: foreign goods were costly, so young Russian factories sold more.
The state also earned a lot from a spirits monopoly (1894). The cost: taxes fell mostly on peasants, and Russia owed large debts. Witte left office in 1903.
Peasants and workers
Since 1861 peasants were free, but they had to pay redemption payments for their land for decades. In many villages the commune shared the land, and plots were small. Families grew, so each person had less land. Hungry for land, peasants looked at the big estates of nobles.
New factory workers lived in crowded barracks and worked 12 hours or more. A law of 1897 limited the working day to 11.5 hours, but strikes were still forbidden. Workers began to join secret groups.
Nicholas II and the autocracy
Nicholas II became tsar in 1894 and was crowned in 1896. He was an autocrat: a ruler with unlimited power. There was no parliament and no elected law-making body. When some people hoped for a constitution, he called such hopes senseless dreams. He felt it was his sacred duty to keep power as his father had.
New political groups grew in secret or abroad:
- Liberals wanted a constitution and elected government.
- Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs), formed 1901–02, spoke for the peasants.
- Social Democrats (RSDLP), founded 1898, spoke for workers. In 1903 they split into Bolsheviks (Lenin) and Mensheviks.
A rich economy, an unhappy village and a tsar who would not share power: these three together prepared the revolution of 1905.
Key formulas and definitions
- Census 1897: about 126 million people; about 8 in 10 peasants; about 1 in 5 could read
- Witte (Finance Minister 1892–1903) = Rails, Gold ruble (1897), Loans, Tariffs
- Industry grew about 8% a year in the 1890s; railways about 30 000 km → 50 000+ km
- Nicholas II: tsar from 1894, autocrat, no parliament until 1905–06
- Parties: Liberals, SRs (peasants), RSDLP (1898) → Bolsheviks and Mensheviks (1903)
Worked examples
1. About how many of 126 million people were peasants if 8 in 10 were?
8/10 of 126 million = about 100 million peasants.
2. Explain how the gold ruble helped industry.
Foreign investors knew they could change rubles for gold, so they trusted Russia and put money into factories and railways. More money meant more industry.
3. Why did growing families cause trouble in villages?
The land stayed the same size, so each person had less land to farm. Add the taxes and redemption payments and many peasants stayed poor and wanted more land.
4. Why can we say that Russia around 1900 was both strong and weak?
Strong: fast industry, many new railways, and big mines. Weak: old farming, poor peasants, hard factory work, and no way for people to take part in government.
5. Who gained and who paid for Witte's policy?
The state, factory owners and foreign investors gained. Peasants paid most of the taxes that financed it, and workers carried the hard factory life.
Common mistakes
- Thinking Russia was a modern industrial country in 1900. Industry was growing fast, but about 8 in 10 people were still peasants.
- Saying Witte was a tsar. He was a minister (Finance, 1892–1903) who served the tsar.
- Mixing up Nicholas II with his father Alexander III. Nicholas became tsar in 1894.
- Thinking all people in the empire were Russians. Russians were less than half; many nations lived in the empire.