Agrarian society in the Mughal empire (16th to 17th centuries)
Agrarian means about farming and land. In the 16th and 17th centuries, about 85 percent of people in India lived in villages. Most were peasants.
Our sources
- Ain-i Akbari by Abul Fazl, finished in 1598. It is the third part of the Akbarnama. It records how the empire was run, land types, crops and revenue.
- Revenue records from the 17th and 18th centuries from Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan.
- East India Company records about farming in eastern India.
The Ain was written from the court's side, so it tells us more about what the state wanted than about the peasants' feelings.
Peasants and their lands
Persian sources call a peasant a raiyat (plural riaya) or muzarian, and also kisan or asami.
- Khud-kashta: peasants who lived in the village where they owned land.
- Pahi-kashta: peasants who farmed land in another village, sometimes on contract, sometimes because they were poor or moving to find better terms.
- A rich peasant could own ploughs and bullocks; a poor one might own only land and a pair of oxen, or less.
Farming and irrigation
Plenty of land was available, so villages spread into forests. Farming depended mostly on the monsoon. Crops needing more water got it from wells, tanks and canals. Shah Jahan repaired old canals like the Shah Nahar in Punjab. Peasants used a light wooden plough, and a Persian wheel for lifting water in some places.
Crops
There were two main seasons: kharif (autumn) and rabi (spring). Many places grew two crops a year. Besides grain, peasants grew cash crops called jins-i kamil (perfect crops), like cotton and sugarcane, which paid more revenue. New crops came from the Americas through world trade: maize, tobacco, chillies, potatoes and tomatoes.
The village community and panchayat
- Who lived in a village: farmers, landless labourers (often from groups treated as low caste), and artisans like potters, blacksmiths, carpenters and barbers. Artisans often got a share of the harvest or a piece of land for their service instead of cash, a system later called jajmani.
- The panchayat was a council of elders. The headman was the muqaddam or mandal, chosen by the elders and approved by the zamindar. An accountant (patwari) kept the village accounts.
- The panchayat had a common fund for guests, floods and community work. It made sure caste rules were kept, settled disputes, and could fine or expel people.
- Each caste (jati) also had its own panchayat.
- Peasants could petition the panchayat against unfair taxes or officials.
Women
Women worked beside men: sowing, weeding, harvesting, spinning, pottery and embroidery. Because work needed many hands, women were valued, and in some groups the groom's family paid a bride-price. Some women inherited and sold land.
Forests and tribes
Large forests (jangal) covered much of the land. Forest people hunted, gathered honey, wax and gum, and traded elephants. The state wanted forest products and sometimes collected peshkash (gifts) from forest chiefs. Mughal hunts (shikar) also let the emperor move through his lands and hear complaints.
Zamindars
Zamindars were landholders who were above ordinary peasants. They did not farm themselves but had great power in the countryside.
- They owned personal land called milkiyat, farmed by hired labour; they could sell or pass it on.
- They collected revenue for the state and got a share.
- Many had forts (qila) and armed men: soldiers, horses and guns.
- Many came from higher castes and some from local warrior groups; some became zamindars by settling new land.
- They helped settle villages, gave loans and seeds, and ran markets. But they could also be harsh. When the state pressed too hard, they sometimes led peasant rebellions.
State and agriculture: land revenue
Land revenue was the main income of the Mughal empire. The state took a share of the crop, often about one-third.
How it worked
- Two stages: jama = the amount assessed (fixed as the demand), and hasil = the amount actually collected.
- The revenue collector was the amil-guzar. He was told to push for cash payment but also accept crops.
- Under Akbar, Raja Todar Mal helped measure land and set rates (the zabt system). Land was measured with ropes and later bamboo with iron rings.
Four kinds of land in the Ain
- Polaj: farmed every year, never left fallow.
- Parauti: left fallow (resting) for a short time to regain strength.
- Chachar: left fallow for three or four years.
- Banjar: left fallow for five years or more.
Polaj and parauti were further sorted into good, middle and bad land. Revenue rates were set for each type and crop.
Mansabdars and the flow of silver
Revenue paid the mansabdars, officers who held a rank (mansab) and kept cavalry. Many were paid by getting the right to revenue from an area (jagir). Meanwhile, world trade brought large amounts of silver from the Americas into India to pay for Indian goods. This helped the Mughals collect taxes in cash and made markets busier.
Key formulas and definitions
- Ain-i Akbari: Abul Fazl, 1598, third part of Akbarnama
- Khud-kashta = resident owner-cultivator; pahi-kashta = cultivator from another village
- Jama = revenue assessed; hasil = revenue collected
- Land types: polaj (every year) → parauti (short rest) → chachar (3-4 years rest) → banjar (5+ years rest)
- Revenue share often ≈ 1/3 of the crop; jins-i kamil = cash crops (cotton, sugarcane)
- Village: panchayat, muqaddam/mandal (headman), patwari (accountant)
Worked examples
1. A field gives 90 maunds of grain. The state takes one-third. How much does the peasant keep?
Step 1: one-third of 90 = 90 ÷ 3 = 30 maunds to the state. Step 2: 90 - 30 = 60 maunds kept. So the peasant keeps 60 maunds, before paying anything else.
2. Jama was 300 rupees but only 240 was collected. What was the hasil and the shortfall?
Step 1: hasil = amount collected = 240. Step 2: shortfall = 300 - 240 = 60. Step 3: as a percent, 60 ÷ 300 = 20 percent less than demanded.
3. A plot rested for 4 years. Which type of land is it?
Step 1: polaj never rests. Step 2: parauti rests a short time. Step 3: chachar rests 3 to 4 years. So it is chachar.
4. Why did the state like peasants to grow jins-i kamil?
Step 1: cotton and sugarcane sold for more money. Step 2: more money meant more revenue at the same share. Step 3: so the state encouraged these cash crops.
Common mistakes
- Mixing khud-kashta and pahi-kashta. Khud = own village; pahi = from outside.
- Thinking jama and hasil are the same. Jama is the demand; hasil is what was actually collected.
- Saying zamindars were ordinary farmers. They were landholders with rights, forts and armed men.
- Reading the Ain-i Akbari as the peasants' view. It was written for the court.