Warm-up and cool-down
Warm-up (about 10–15 minutes)
- Pulse raiser: easy jogging or skipping, so heart rate and muscle temperature rise.
- Mobility and dynamic stretches: leg swings, arm circles, lunges.
- Sport-specific drills: passing, short sprints, practice shots.
Why: warm muscles are more elastic, nerves send messages faster, more oxygen reaches the muscles and the risk of injury falls. It also prepares the mind.
Cool-down (about 5–10 minutes)
Light jogging or walking, then static stretches. Heart rate and breathing come down slowly, blood does not pool in the legs, and waste such as lactic acid is removed faster, so there is less stiffness the next day.
Principles of training: SPORT and rest
- Specificity: train the muscles, energy system and skills your sport uses. A sprinter trains speed, a long-distance runner trains endurance.
- Progression: increase the load slowly (often about 10% a week) so the body can keep up.
- Overload: work harder than usual, so the body adapts (stronger heart, muscles, lungs).
- Reversibility: if you stop, the gains are lost, faster than they were made.
- Tedium: vary the sessions to stay motivated and avoid overuse injuries.
Rest and recovery are part of training: the body adapts during rest. Too much load and too little rest leads to overtraining: tiredness, poor results, injury and illness. Individual needs also matter: age, fitness, sport and goals differ.
FITT and heart-rate training zones
FITT sets how much training to do:
- Frequency: sessions per week.
- Intensity: how hard (heart rate, % of max weight, speed).
- Time: length of a session.
- Type: the activity chosen.
Maximum heart rate (MHR) ≈ 220 − age (in beats per minute, bpm). Target zones:
- Aerobic zone, 60–80% of MHR: builds stamina (cardiovascular endurance); energy made with oxygen.
- Anaerobic zone, 80–90% of MHR: builds speed and the ability to cope with lactic acid; short bursts.
For strength training, intensity is the load: heavy load and few repetitions build strength; light load and many repetitions build muscular endurance.
Training methods
- Continuous: steady exercise for 20 minutes or more without rest (running, cycling, swimming). Aerobic endurance.
- Interval: bursts of hard work with rest between, repeated (for example 10 × 100 m sprints). Speed and anaerobic fitness; can be adjusted for aerobic.
- Fartlek ("speed play"): continuous running with changes of pace and terrain. Good for games players.
- Circuit: a set of stations (press-ups, step-ups, sit-ups, skipping) with short rests. Can target many fitness parts.
- Weight / resistance: lifting loads in sets and repetitions. Strength, power or muscular endurance.
- Plyometrics: jumping, bounding, hopping; muscles stretch then contract fast. Power.
- Flexibility: static, dynamic or assisted stretching; also yoga.
- High-altitude training: living or training high up so the body makes more red blood cells.
Planning a training year: periodisation
Coaches split the year into phases:
- Pre-season: build general fitness, then sport-specific fitness.
- Competition (peak) season: keep fitness, sharpen skills, rest before key events (tapering).
- Off-season / transition: active rest, recover from injury, light activity.
Long-term training brings adaptations: a bigger, stronger heart (lower resting heart rate, more blood per beat), more capillaries, stronger muscles, bones and tendons, and better use of oxygen. Safety: correct technique, the right equipment, hydration and listening to pain reduce injury.
Key formulas and definitions
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Worked examples
1. Find the maximum heart rate and the aerobic zone for a 16-year-old.
MHR = 220 − 16 = 204 bpm. 60% = 122.4 ≈ 122 bpm; 80% = 163.2 ≈ 163 bpm. Aerobic zone ≈ 122–163 bpm.
2. A pulse count gives 32 beats in 15 seconds after a sprint. What is the heart rate?
32 × 4 = 128 bpm.
3. A runner trains 20 km per week. Using about 10% progression, how far in week 2 and week 3?
Week 2: 20 × 1.1 = 22 km. Week 3: 22 × 1.1 = 24.2 km.
4. Choose a training method for (a) a 1500 m runner, (b) a basketball player who needs a higher jump, (c) a hockey player who needs to change pace.
(a) Continuous plus interval training. (b) Plyometrics. (c) Fartlek.
5. A lifter does 3 sets of 10 reps with 40 kg. Find the volume. Next week she wants about 10% more volume with the same reps. What load?
Volume = 3 × 10 × 40 = 1,200 kg. 10% more = 1,320 kg. Load = 1,320 ÷ 30 = 44 kg.
Common mistakes
- Skipping the warm-up because you feel fine: cold muscles tear more easily.
- Adding too much load too quickly: progression should be gradual, or it causes overtraining and injury.
- Thinking rest days waste time: the body adapts and gets stronger during rest.
- Using the same method for every sport: training must be specific to the sport and the fitness part needed.