National Year 11 Geography

Chapters: 5

1. 3.2.1 Urban issues and challenges

Global urban change · City in a lower-income or newly emerging economy · UK cities · Sustainable urban living

Urbanisation: Why Cities Grow and How to Make Them Work – Urbanisation is the rise in the share of a country's or the world's people who live in towns and cities. In 1950 about 30% of the world was urban; since 2007 more than half is, and about 68% is expected by 2050. Cities grow by rural–urban migration (push factors from the countryside, pull factors to the city) and by natural increase. Today the fastest growth is in lower-income and newly emerging countries of Asia and Africa, where megacities of 10 million or more are forming; in many rich countries growth is slow and people also move out to suburbs (suburbanisation and counter-urbanisation). Fast growth brings opportunities (jobs, services) and problems (informal housing, traffic, pollution, waste, flooding, the urban heat island). Sustainable urban development tries to fix these with public transport, green spaces, clean water, recycling, affordable housing and renewable energy.
Sustainable Urban Living – A city is sustainable when it meets people's needs today without using up the water, energy, land and clean air that people will need later. The main tools are: saving water (rainwater harvesting, low-flow taps), saving energy (solar panels, insulation), keeping green spaces (parks, trees, green roofs), handling waste well (reduce, reuse, recycle, compost) and managing traffic (buses, trains, cycle lanes, congestion charges). All of these come from one big idea: people and the environment affect each other all the time.

2. 3.2.2 The changing economic world

Development gap · Rapid growth in an LIC or NEE · Changing UK economy

Development – Development means different things to different people: more income, but also equality, freedom, security and respect. Countries are compared by per capita income, but averages hide inequality, so we also look at health and education. The Human Development Index combines these. Development must also be sustainable, so resources last for future generations.
Economic Development: Theories, Trade and Rapid Growth – Economic development means people's lives getting better: more income, better health, more education and more choice. Countries are often grouped as high-income (HIC), newly emerging economies (NEEs) and low-income (LICs). Rostow's model says every country climbs the same five steps; dependency theory says rich core countries keep poorer periphery countries behind through unfair trade. Trade, transnational companies (TNCs), aid, women's education and sustainable choices all shape how fast and how fairly a country develops.
The Changing UK Economy – In 1900 most British workers made things in mines, mills and factories. Today about four in five jobs are in services such as shops, health, banking and IT. The change came from deindustrialisation (old industries closing), globalisation (goods made more cheaply elsewhere) and government choices. The new post-industrial economy is built on services, research and technology, often in science parks. Change has not been equal: rural areas have gained or lost people, transport links are being improved, and a gap in wealth and health remains between the richer south-east and parts of the north. The UK stays linked to the world through trade, investment, the Commonwealth and international groups.

3. 3.2.3 The challenge of resource management

Resource management · Food (option: food, water OR energy) · Water (option) · Energy (option)

Resources and Development – A resource is anything in nature that people can use with the help of technology. Resources can be grouped by origin, by how long they last, by who owns them and by how much we have developed them. India must plan how it uses resources, look after its land, and protect its soils from erosion.
Food Security: Feeding Everyone, Every Day – Food security means every person, at all times, can get enough safe and nutritious food for an active, healthy life. It rests on four pillars: availability (food is produced or imported), access (people can afford and reach it), use (good nutrition, clean water, safe cooking) and stability (supply does not collapse in bad years). Food supply is uneven across the world. Demand keeps rising with population, incomes and changing diets, while climate change, water shortage, soil loss, conflict and waste limit supply. Food insecurity causes hunger, malnutrition, high prices, migration and unrest. Supply can be raised by irrigation, better seeds, new technology and cutting waste, but long-term answers must also be sustainable and fair.
Water Resources – Almost all water on Earth is salty sea water; only a tiny part is usable fresh water. Growing population, farming, industry and pollution cause water scarcity. Multipurpose dams store water for many uses but also create problems. Rainwater harvesting is an old and simple way to save water.
Minerals and Energy Resources – Minerals are natural substances found in rocks. They are metallic (ferrous or non-ferrous), non-metallic, or energy minerals. Energy comes from conventional sources like coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity, and from non-conventional sources like sun, wind, nuclear, biogas, tides and heat from the Earth. Both minerals and energy must be conserved.

4. 3.3 Geographical applications

Issue evaluation (pre-release resource) · Fieldwork

Geographical Enquiry and Fieldwork – A geographical enquiry is a small research project about a real place. It follows clear steps: ask a question and write a hypothesis; collect primary data (your own measurements and surveys) and secondary data (census, maps, websites) using a fair sampling method; process and present the data in suitable graphs and maps; analyse the pattern and reach a conclusion; then evaluate how reliable the results are. The same skills are used to make decisions: weigh options using evidence and justify the best one. Older students write a longer independent investigation with their own question, primary and secondary data, analysis and conclusions.

5. 3.4 Geographical skills

Cartographic skills · Graphical skills · Numerical and statistical skills · Using data and writing argument

Topographical Maps – Topographical maps are large-scale maps that show both natural and human features of a small area in detail, using agreed signs and colours. In India they are made by the Survey of India in a nested sheet series (1:1,000,000 → 1:250,000 → 1:50,000 → 1:25,000). Relief is shown by contours; their spacing and shape tell slope and landform, and a cross-section turns them into a side view.
Data Representation: How Computers Store Numbers, Text, Images and Sound – Data is raw facts; information is data given meaning; knowledge is information we can use. A computer stores all data as bits (0 or 1). 8 bits make a byte, and 1 kB = 1000 bytes, 1 MB = 1000 kB, 1 GB = 1000 MB, 1 TB = 1000 GB. Numbers are stored in binary, where place values double: 1, 2, 4, 8 and so on. Text uses a character set: in ASCII 'A' is 65; Unicode covers every script. A bitmap image is a grid of pixels; size = width × height × colour depth. Sound is sampled: size = sample rate × bit depth × seconds. Vector images store shapes instead of pixels. Compression makes files smaller: lossless keeps every bit, lossy throws some detail away.
Geographical Enquiry and Fieldwork – A geographical enquiry is a small research project about a real place. It follows clear steps: ask a question and write a hypothesis; collect primary data (your own measurements and surveys) and secondary data (census, maps, websites) using a fair sampling method; process and present the data in suitable graphs and maps; analyse the pattern and reach a conclusion; then evaluate how reliable the results are. The same skills are used to make decisions: weigh options using evidence and justify the best one. Older students write a longer independent investigation with their own question, primary and secondary data, analysis and conclusions.