How economists, sociologists and political scientists work
Social sciences study people living together. Each one asks its own kind of question about the same world:
- Economics: how people use scarce resources (money, time, work). Tools: prices, statistics, models.
- Sociology: how groups, families, classes and customs shape us. Tools: surveys, interviews, observation.
- Political science: who has power and how decisions are made. Tools: election data, laws, speeches, polls.
- History, geography, anthropology and psychology add time, place, culture and the mind.
All follow the same path: question → hypothesis → evidence → analysis → conclusion. In today's knowledge society, information is everywhere, so knowing how to check it is a key skill.
Sources and text analysis
A source is anything that gives evidence.
- Primary: made at the time by people involved – letters, diaries, photos, laws, census tables, interviews.
- Secondary: made later by people who studied primary sources – textbooks, articles, documentaries.
Analysing a text or image: 5 W questions
- Who made it? 2. When and where? 3. Why (purpose, audience)? 4. What does it say or show? 5. What does it leave out?
For an image, also look at framing, light, what is in the centre and the caption. Compare with at least one other source.
Collecting data: quantitative and qualitative
- Quantitative methods give numbers: questionnaires, polls, statistics. Good for 'how many' and 'how often'.
- Qualitative methods give words and meanings: interviews, focus groups, observation, case studies. Good for 'why' and 'how'.
A sample is the small group you ask; the population is everyone you want to know about. Bigger, random samples give results closer to the truth. Questions must be neutral (not 'Don't you agree that…?').
Ethics: ask permission (informed consent), keep people anonymous, do no harm. This matters a lot in health and social care studies.
Maps, graphs and geographic information technologies
- Bar chart: compare categories. Line graph: change over time. Pie chart: parts of a whole. Population pyramid: ages and sexes.
- Thematic maps show one topic (rainfall, population density) with colours or symbols; always read the title, legend and scale.
- GIS (geographic information system) stacks digital layers on a map; GPS gives exact position; remote sensing uses satellite images.
Bias and correlation
Bias = a one-sided view. Correlation = two things change together; causation = one really makes the other happen. Ice-cream sales and sunburn rise together because of a third factor: hot weather.
Key formulas and definitions
- Research path: question → hypothesis → evidence → analysis → conclusion
- Primary source = made at the time; secondary source = made later
- Quantitative = numbers (how many); qualitative = words (why, how)
- Percentage = (count ÷ total) × 100
- Source check: Who? When? Where? Why? What is missing?
- Correlation ≠ causation; look for a third factor
Worked examples
1. In a survey, 12 of 40 students say they walk to school. What percentage is that?
12 ÷ 40 = 0.3; 0.3 × 100 = 30%.
2. Is a 1950 newspaper report about a flood a primary or secondary source? And a 2020 book about that flood?
The 1950 report was made at the time, so it is primary. The 2020 book was written later from other sources, so it is secondary.
3. Towns with more hospitals have more deaths. Do hospitals cause deaths?
No. Both rise with a third factor: bigger population and more sick people go to hospital. This is correlation, not causation.
Common mistakes
- Thinking primary sources are always true. They can be biased too; check who made them and why.
- Asking only friends and calling it a survey. A small, non-random sample can mislead.
- Reading a map without its legend and scale.
- Saying 'A causes B' only because A and B rise together.