What is Indian philosophy?
The Sanskrit word darshana means "seeing": a philosophy is a way of seeing reality. Indian thinkers asked three linked questions:
- Metaphysics: what is real? (self, world, God, matter)
- Epistemology: how do we know? (pramanas)
- Ethics and liberation: how should we live, and how do we become free from suffering (moksha, nirvana, kaivalya)?
Ideas were tested by debate: a thinker first states the opponent's view (purvapaksha) fairly, then answers it (siddhanta). Most schools share ideas of karma (actions have results) and rebirth, but Charvaka rejects both.
Astika and nastika: classifying the schools
Astika ("it is") schools accept the Vedas as a source of knowledge. Nastika schools do not. This is about the Vedas, not simply about belief in God: Samkhya and Mimamsa, for example, do not need a creator God and are still astika.
| Astika (6) | Nastika (3) |
|---|---|
| Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, Vedanta | Buddhism, Jainism, Charvaka (Lokayata) |
The six astika schools are often studied in pairs because they share ideas: Nyaya–Vaisheshika, Samkhya–Yoga, Mimamsa–Vedanta.
Pramanas: ways of knowing
A pramana is a valid means of knowledge. The main six:
- Pratyaksha: perception through the senses.
- Anumana: inference (smoke → fire).
- Upamana: comparison (knowing a wild ox because "it looks like a cow").
- Shabda: reliable testimony (a trustworthy expert or text).
- Arthapatti: postulation ("he is fat but never eats by day, so he must eat at night").
- Anupalabdhi: non-perception (knowing the jar is absent because you do not see it).
Charvaka accepts 1 (perception); Vaisheshika and Buddhism 2 (perception, inference); Samkhya and Yoga 3 (+ testimony); Nyaya 4 (+ comparison); Mimamsa (Bhatta) and Advaita Vedanta 6. Jainism has its own scheme, usually described as direct and indirect knowledge.
The six astika schools
- Nyaya (Gautama/Akshapada): logic and debate. Its five-member inference: claim, reason, example, application, conclusion. Right knowledge removes suffering.
- Vaisheshika (Kanada): the world is made of eternal, tiny atoms (paramanu) and can be sorted into categories (padartha) such as substance, quality and action.
- Samkhya (Kapila): two basic realities: purusha (pure consciousness) and prakriti (matter). Prakriti has three gunas: sattva (light, calm), rajas (energy, activity), tamas (heaviness, inertia). Freedom comes from knowing the difference between purusha and prakriti.
- Yoga (Patanjali's Yoga Sutras): uses Samkhya ideas; the eight limbs (ashtanga): yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana, samadhi, to calm the mind.
- Mimamsa (Jaimini): duty (dharma) and correct ritual action; careful rules for interpreting the meaning of texts.
- Vedanta (Badarayana's Brahma Sutras, based on the Upanishads): the final reality is Brahman. Sub-schools: Advaita (Shankara, the self and Brahman are one), Vishishtadvaita (Ramanuja, qualified oneness), Dvaita (Madhva, self and God are distinct).
The nastika schools: Buddhism, Jainism, Charvaka
- Buddhism (Gautama Buddha): four noble truths (suffering exists, it has a cause, it can end, the eightfold path ends it); the middle path between luxury and harsh self-denial; everything changes (anicca) and there is no fixed self (anatta); dependent origination: things arise because of conditions.
- Jainism (Mahavira and earlier tirthankaras): ahimsa (non-violence) to all living beings; anekantavada: truth has many sides, so every view is partial, explained with syadvada ("in some way, it is…"); the three jewels: right faith, right knowledge, right conduct.
- Charvaka / Lokayata: only perception gives knowledge; only the four elements (earth, water, fire, air) are real; consciousness arises from the body; no afterlife, so enjoy life while acting sensibly. It pushed other schools to defend inference carefully.
Comparing the schools and why they matter today
| Question | Range of answers |
|---|---|
| What is real? | Atoms and categories (Vaisheshika); two realities (Samkhya); one Brahman (Advaita); only matter (Charvaka); constant change (Buddhism) |
| How do we know? | 1 to 6 pramanas |
| Goal of life | Moksha, nirvana, kaivalya, or happiness in this life (Charvaka) |
These ideas still shape logic, meditation and mindfulness, ethics of non-violence, and debates on mind and matter. Similar questions appear in Greek and Chinese philosophy, which makes comparison interesting.
Try it
Write down three things you know today and label each with its pramana: perception (I saw it), inference (I worked it out), testimony (someone reliable told me). In the 3D, pick Charvaka and Vedanta and compare how many lamps each has.
Key formulas and definitions
- Astika (6): Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, Vedanta
- Nastika (3): Buddhism, Jainism, Charvaka
- Pramanas: perception, inference, comparison, testimony, postulation, non-perception
- Nyaya inference: claim → reason → example → application → conclusion
- Three gunas: sattva, rajas, tamas
- Eight limbs of Yoga: yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana, samadhi
Worked examples
1. Write a five-step Nyaya inference to show that it rained last night.
1 Claim: it rained last night. 2 Reason: the ground is wet everywhere. 3 Example: wherever the ground is wet everywhere in the morning, it has rained, as seen before. 4 Application: today the ground is wet everywhere. 5 Conclusion: so it rained last night.
2. Samkhya and Mimamsa do not need a creator God. Why are they still astika?
Astika means accepting the authority of the Vedas, not belief in a creator. Both accept the Vedas, so they are astika.
3. Which pramana is used in each? (a) I see a rainbow. (b) The doctor says I need rest. (c) My friend is not in the room because I do not see her.
(a) perception (pratyaksha); (b) testimony (shabda); (c) non-perception (anupalabdhi).
4. How would a Jain thinker use anekantavada about the question "Is the glass full?"
In one way it is full (of air and some water), in another way it is half-empty of water; each statement is true from a viewpoint. Many partial views together give a fuller truth.
Common mistakes
- Thinking astika means "believes in God" and nastika means "atheist": the test is acceptance of the Vedas.
- Mixing Yoga philosophy with only physical postures: asana is just one of eight limbs.
- Believing all Indian schools agree on rebirth: Charvaka rejects it.
- Saying Vedanta is one view: Advaita, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita disagree on how the self relates to Brahman.