Observational learning
Albert Bandura showed that we learn by watching others, called models. Also called social learning or modelling.
- In his study, children watched a film of an adult hitting a big doll. Those who saw the adult rewarded hit the doll more; those who saw punishment hit less. But all of them had learned the actions.
- Steps: attention to the model, retention (remembering), reproduction (being able to do it) and motivation (a reason to do it).
This is why role models and what children see on screens matter.
Cognitive learning
In cognitive learning, the change is in what we know and think.
- Insight learning (Wolfgang Köhler): a chimpanzee could not reach bananas. After failing, it paused, then suddenly stacked boxes or joined sticks. The solution came all at once, and it could use the idea again in new problems.
- Latent learning (Edward Tolman): rats explored a maze without any food. When food was later put at the end, they ran fast and made few errors. They had built a cognitive map that stayed hidden (latent) until there was a reason to use it.
Verbal and concept learning
Verbal learning is learning words, symbols and their meanings.
- Paired-associates: learn pairs; the first word (stimulus) should bring the second (response).
- Serial learning: learn a list in the same order.
- Free recall: recall a list in any order. First and last items are remembered best (serial position effect). Recalled words group by meaning (clustering).
Things that affect verbal learning: how meaningful the words are, how familiar, and how often they are used. Concept learning is learning a category with shared features (like "fruit").
Skill learning
A skill is the ability to do a complex task smoothly, like driving or playing the sitar. Fitts described three phases:
- Cognitive phase: understand and remember the instructions; think of each move; many errors.
- Associative phase: moves join into smooth chains; errors drop.
- Autonomous phase: the skill runs automatically with little attention.
Practice is the main way up. Transfer of learning: a skill learned earlier can help (positive transfer) or get in the way of (negative transfer) a new one.
Factors that help learning
- Continuous vs partial reinforcement: continuous builds learning fast; partial keeps it longer.
- Motivation: intrinsic (learning because it is fun) and extrinsic (for rewards or marks). A motivated learner practises more.
- Preparedness: each species is ready to learn some links easily (a taste and later sickness) and others hardly at all.
Learning styles: some learners like the big picture (relational), others like step-by-step (analytical). Good teaching uses both.
Learning disabilities
A learning disability is a problem in acquiring, organising or using skills like reading, writing, listening or maths. The child's intelligence is usually normal. Common signs:
- Difficulty in writing and reading, mixing letters like b/d or p/q (dyslexia).
- Poor attention; easily distracted.
- Poor motor coordination and handwriting.
- Trouble understanding spoken instructions, and poor sense of time and space.
- Poor study skills and planning.
It is not laziness. Early spotting and special, patient teaching help children learn well.
Key formulas and definitions
- Observational learning: attention → retention → reproduction → motivation
- Insight: sudden solution after a pause
- Latent learning: hidden learning shown when needed (cognitive map)
- Verbal learning: paired-associate, serial, free recall
- Skill phases: cognitive → associative → autonomous
- Factors: reinforcement plan, motivation, preparedness
Worked examples
1. Priya's little brother starts using the words his cartoon hero uses. What kind of learning is this?
Observational learning. He attended to a model, remembered, and copied because the hero seemed admired.
2. You live in a town and ride pillion daily. One day you must reach the market on your own and you know the way. What does this show?
Latent learning. You built a mental map without trying; it appeared when you needed it.
3. Learning capitals as "India–New Delhi, Japan–Tokyo". Which method?
Paired-associate learning: the first word should bring the second.
4. A new typist looks at the keys and makes 20 errors; after a month, 5; after a year, types while talking. Name the phases.
Cognitive → associative → autonomous.
Common mistakes
- Thinking observational learning needs a reward to the learner. Watching the model's result is enough to learn; rewards affect whether we perform it.
- Calling insight trial and error. Insight comes suddenly after thinking, not by slow blind tries.
- Thinking a child with a learning disability has low intelligence. Most have normal intelligence.
- Believing skills become automatic without practice. Practice drives the phases.