Sex, gender and androgyny
Sex is biological: chromosomes, hormones and body parts. Gender is psychological and social: how a person feels about being male, female or another gender (gender identity) and the roles a culture expects.
Sex-role stereotypes are fixed, shared beliefs about how each sex should behave (e.g. 'girls are gentle', 'boys don't cry'). They are learned from family, school and media and can limit choices.
Androgyny means having high levels of both masculine and feminine traits (e.g. assertive and caring). Sandra Bem made a questionnaire, the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), with 60 traits rated 1โ7. People are scored as masculine, feminine, androgynous (high on both) or undifferentiated (low on both). Bem argued androgynous people have better mental health because they can adapt. Evaluation: the traits may be out of date and differ between cultures, and self-report can be biased.
Biology: chromosomes, hormones and atypical patterns
- Chromosomes: usually females are XX and males XY. The SRY gene on the Y chromosome makes the testes form, which produce testosterone.
- Testosterone: controls male body development, and may affect the brain before birth; linked to some aggression.
- Oestrogen: controls female sex traits and the menstrual cycle; may affect mood (e.g. premenstrual changes).
- Oxytocin: released in large amounts in women in childbirth and feeding; linked to bonding and trust.
Atypical sex-chromosome patterns:
- Klinefelter syndrome (XXY): affects about 1 in 600 males. Possible features: less body hair, some breast growth, smaller testes, and difficulties with language, memory or attention. Some may be shy.
- Turner syndrome (X0, one X missing): affects about 1 in 2,500 females. Possible features: short height, no menstrual periods, a broad chest; often good reading ability but weaker maths and spatial skills, and sometimes social difficulties.
These cases help show how biology may affect behaviour. But they are rare and individuals vary, and their social experiences also differ.
Cognitive and psychodynamic explanations
Kohlberg's theory: gender understanding grows with age, in three stages:
- Gender identity (about 2): the child labels themselves as a boy or a girl.
- Gender stability (about 4): they know gender stays over time, but may think it changes if someone wears different clothes.
- Gender constancy (about 6): gender stays the same across time and situations. Only now, Kohlberg says, do children actively copy same-gender models.
Gender schema theory (Martin and Halverson): a schema is an organised set of ideas. From about 2โ3, once a child has basic gender identity, they seek out information about their own gender (in-group) and pay less attention to the other (out-group). Schemas can be rigid: children may forget information that does not fit (e.g. a picture of a male nurse may be recalled as a female nurse).
Psychodynamic theory (Freud): in the phallic stage (3โ6 years), boys experience the Oedipus complex and girls the Electra complex. These are resolved by identification with the same-sex parent and internalisation of their gender role. Evaluation: it is hard to test scientifically; children in single-parent or same-sex-parent families develop typical gender identity.
Social learning, culture, media and atypical gender development
Social learning theory: children learn gender by watching and copying models (parents, peers, TV characters), especially same-sex models they identify with. Direct reinforcement: praise for gender-typical behaviour (a girl praised for being helpful). Vicarious reinforcement: seeing others rewarded. Mediational processes: attention, retention, motivation and motor reproduction decide if a behaviour is copied.
Culture: some gender patterns appear almost everywhere, suggesting biology; but others differ widely (e.g. which sex does farming or cooking), suggesting learning. Media: TV and adverts often show men in jobs and women at home, giving models to copy, though this is changing.
Atypical gender development includes gender dysphoria: distress when a person's gender identity does not match the sex they were assigned at birth. Explanations include biological ideas (e.g. differences in a small brain region, or in hormone exposure before birth) and social ideas (e.g. experiences in childhood), but no single cause is proven. Being transgender is not a mental illness; support focuses on reducing distress.
Try it
In step 5, try all four score sets. Then list five traits (e.g. brave, kind, organised, sporty, gentle). Ask two family members whether each is 'masculine', 'feminine' or 'both'. Do their answers differ? That shows how stereotypes are learned and vary.
Key formulas and definitions
- Key term: Sex = biological; Gender = psychological and cultural
- Key term: Sex-role stereotype = fixed shared belief about how each sex should behave
- Key term: Androgyny = high masculine and high feminine traits (measured with the BSRI)
- Key term: SRY gene = gene on the Y chromosome that starts male development
- Key term: Klinefelter = XXY (males); Turner = X0 (females)
- Key term: Kohlberg = identity (2) โ stability (4) โ constancy (6)
- Key term: Gender schema = organised ideas about gender; in-group / out-group
- Key term: Identification and internalisation = taking on the same-sex parent's role (Freud)
Worked examples
1. A 4-year-old says, 'If Dad puts on a dress, he becomes a mum.' Which Kohlberg stage?
Gender stability: they know gender lasts over time but think it can change with appearance. Constancy is not yet reached.
2. On the BSRI, Leela scores 6 on masculine and 6 on feminine traits (high = above 4.5). Which category?
Androgynous: high on both.
3. A girl shown a picture of a male nurse later remembers a female nurse. Which theory explains this?
Gender schema theory: information that does not fit the schema is distorted to fit it.
Common mistakes
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