Collapse of empires
The war broke four great empires: the Russian (revolution in 1917), the German (Kaiser left in November 1918), the Austro-Hungarian (split up in October–November 1918) and the Ottoman (defeated in 1918; the sultan was removed in 1922 and Turkey became a republic in 1923).
In their place came new states, such as Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Austria, Hungary, Finland and the Baltic states, and Turkey. Many people welcomed this because of the idea of self-determination (a people choosing its own government). But the new borders also left minorities in countries not their own, which caused later quarrels.
The Treaty of Versailles, 1919
Signed on 28 June 1919 in France, this treaty ended the war with Germany. Its main terms:
- War guilt: Germany had to accept blame for the war.
- Land: Germany lost territory (for example Alsace-Lorraine returned to France) and its colonies.
- Army: limited to 100,000 men, with no air force and few ships.
- Reparations: money to pay for damage; the sum was fixed in 1921.
Other treaties dealt with Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and the Ottomans. Many Germans felt the treaty was a harsh dictated peace, and that anger was later used by political leaders.
The Washington treaties, 1921–22
Versailles dealt mainly with Europe. The Washington Conference dealt with the Pacific and the sea. Its treaties did three things: limited the biggest warships of the USA, Britain, Japan, France and Italy in the ratio 5 : 5 : 3 : 1.75 : 1.75; asked the great powers to respect China's independence; and settled rival claims in the Pacific.
Together, the Versailles treaties in Europe and the Washington treaties in the Pacific are called the Versailles–Washington system: the set of agreements that organised the world after 1918.
The League of Nations
The League of Nations began in 1920 in Geneva. Its aim was to keep peace by talks, rules, and pressure on those who broke them. It also ran help for refugees and health work.
Why was it weak?
- No army of its own.
- The USA never joined, though its president had pushed the idea.
- Big decisions needed all members to agree.
- Germany and the USSR were kept out at first; Germany joined in 1926.
- In the 1930s Japan, Germany and Italy left it.
The League solved a few small quarrels but failed against the big powers.
From hope to crack: 1918–1938
In the middle 1920s there was hope: Germany accepted its western borders (Locarno, 1925) and joined the League (1926). Then the Great Depression began in 1929; jobs and money vanished, and angry voters turned to extreme leaders. By 1938 the order built in 1919–22 was breaking. See the next lesson, International relations in the 1930s.
Key formulas and definitions
- 4 empires fell: German, Austro-Hungarian, Russian, Ottoman
- Treaty of Versailles: 28 June 1919
- League of Nations: 1920, Geneva
- Washington naval ratio (USA : Britain : Japan : France : Italy) = 5 : 5 : 3 : 1.75 : 1.75
- Versailles + Washington = the Versailles–Washington system
Worked examples
1. Name the four empires that fell because of World War I.
The German, Austro-Hungarian, Russian and Ottoman empires.
2. List two reasons why the League of Nations was weak.
It had no army of its own, and the USA (a very powerful country) never joined. Also, big decisions needed all members to agree.
3. In the Washington naval ratio, the USA gets 5 and Japan gets 3. If the USA could keep 500,000 tonnes of big warships, how many could Japan keep?
The ratio is 5 : 3. 500,000 ÷ 5 = 100,000 per part. Japan: 3 × 100,000 = 300,000 tonnes.
Common mistakes
- Saying that the League of Nations had its own army. It did not.
- Mixing up Versailles (Europe, Germany) and Washington (navies and the Pacific).
- Thinking the USA led the League. The USA never joined.
- Thinking all new states were peaceful. Their borders left minorities and caused quarrels.