Dual administration
The Liao (about 916 to 1125) were Khitan horse herders. Their founder Abaoji took over lands that had many farmers too. One set of rules could not suit both, so they used dual administration:
- Northern administration: for Khitan and other herders, with tribal chiefs and Khitan custom.
- Southern administration: for Han farmers, with Tang-style offices, taxes and law.
The emperor stood above both. Other rulers also mixed ways. The Xia (Tangut, 1038 to 1227) made their own script and kept a tribal army, but borrowed Buddhism and court offices. The Jin (Jurchen, 1115 to 1234) organised people into war-and-farm units, and later used Chinese-style ministries and exams to govern the north.
Yuan provinces
Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, named his state Yuan in 1271, made Dadu (Beijing) his capital and ended the Southern Song in 1279. He ruled until 1294, and the Yuan lasted until 1368.
- Centre: a Central Secretariat in the capital ran the area around it directly.
- Provinces: for the rest, about ten branch offices (xing sheng) with officials and army. They carried out the centre's orders. This is where the idea of the province comes from, and China still uses it.
- Roads: relay post stations with riders and horses carried news and officials quickly across the empire.
- People: the Yuan placed people in four groups: Mongols, "various peoples" from Central Asia, northern Chinese (Han) and southern Chinese. The higher groups got more favours. Exams stopped for years and began again in 1315.
Try it: be the ruler
1. In step 2 tap Liao, Xia and Jin and say which part was borrowed.
2. In step 6 slide from 0 to 10 branch offices. At how many offices does the average distance halve? Predict, then check.
3. At home: draw your school with two shifts, and write which rules are common and which are different.
Key formulas and definitions
- Key terms: dual administration = two sets of rules under one ruler
- Liao = Khitan (916 to 1125); Xia = Tangut (1038 to 1227)
- Jin = Jurchen (1115 to 1234); Yuan = Mongol (1271 to 1368)
- Yuan: Central Secretariat + about 10 provinces (xing sheng)
- Kublai: Yuan 1271, Southern Song ends 1279
Worked examples
1. Why did the Liao need two administrations?
Step 1: their people were herders and farmers. Step 2: herders follow tribal chiefs and move with animals; farmers stay, pay taxes and need written law. Step 3: so each half got rules that fitted its life.
2. There are 10 branch offices and a town is 4 units from the centre. If its nearest office is 1.5 units away, how many units are saved?
Step 1: distance to the centre = 4. Step 2: distance to the office = 1.5. Step 3: 4 - 1.5 = 2.5 units saved.
3. Which came first: Yuan named, Southern Song ends, Mongols united?
Years: Mongols united 1206, Yuan named 1271, Southern Song ends 1279. So the order is united, named, ended.
Common mistakes
- Thinking all four states were Mongol. Liao were Khitan, Xia Tangut, Jin Jurchen; only the Yuan were Mongol.
- Saying dual administration meant two emperors. There was one emperor and two sets of officials and rules.
- Thinking provinces started under the Ming. The Yuan set up branch offices and the word province comes from them.
- Forgetting the ruled people were not only Han. Many peoples lived under these states.