Stem + ending: how a Sanskrit word is made
In English we add little words: "with a knife", "for the teacher". In Sanskrit we change the end of the word instead. The part that stays is the stem (प्रातिपदिक for nouns, धातु for verbs). The part we add is the ending (प्रत्यय).
Two things decide a noun's ending: its case (vibhakti, 7 kinds) and its number (vachan: singular, dual, plural). Sanskrit has a special number for exactly two things: the dual.
Noun forms: the 7 cases of राम
The word राम (a boy, masculine, ends in -a) has 21 forms: 7 cases times 3 numbers. Learn it row by row.
| Case | One | Two | Many |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 doer | रामः | रामौ | रामाः |
| 2 thing acted on | रामम् | रामौ | रामान् |
| 3 by/with | रामेण | रामाभ्याम् | रामैः |
| 4 to/for | रामाय | रामाभ्याम् | रामेभ्यः |
| 5 from | रामात् | रामाभ्याम् | रामेभ्यः |
| 6 of | रामस्य | रामयोः | रामाणाम् |
| 7 in/on | रामे | रामयोः | रामेषु |
Notice the repeats: cases 3, 4 and 5 share the same dual form (-आभ्याम्), and cases 4 and 5 share the same plural (-एभ्यः). Fewer things to learn!
Other common nouns: लता (feminine, ends in -ā: लता, लते, लताः) and फल (neuter, ends in -a: फलम्, फले, फलानि). In a neuter word, cases 1 and 2 look the same.
Pronoun forms: तद्, किम्, अस्मद्
A pronoun takes the place of a noun: he, she, I, you, who. Pronouns follow the same 7 cases and 3 numbers, but they often change their stem too, so each one must be learnt.
तद् (he, that, masculine): सः, तौ, ते | तम्, तौ, तान् | तेन, ताभ्याम्, तैः | तस्मै, ताभ्याम्, तेभ्यः | तस्मात्, ताभ्याम्, तेभ्यः | तस्य, तयोः, तेषाम् | तस्मिन्, तयोः, तेषु.
अस्मद् (I, we): अहम्, आवाम्, वयम् | माम्, आवाम्, अस्मान् | मया, आवाभ्याम्, अस्माभिः | मह्यम्, आवाभ्याम्, अस्मभ्यम् | मत्, आवाभ्याम्, अस्मत् | मम, आवयोः, अस्माकम् | मयि, आवयोः, अस्मासु. The pronouns for I and you have the same forms for all genders.
Verb forms: person, number and tense (lakara)
A verb ending tells three things: who (person: प्रथम = he/she/it, मध्यम = you, उत्तम = I/we), how many (one, two, many) and when (tense or mood, called a lakara). That makes a 3 x 3 table of 9 forms for each lakara.
The five lakaras you need:
- लट् present: पठति (he reads now)
- लङ् past: अपठत् (he read; note the extra अ- in front)
- लृट् future: पठिष्यति (he will read; note -ष्य-)
- लोट् order or request: पठतु (let him read), पठ (you read!)
- विधिलिङ् should or may: पठेत् (he should read)
पठ् present (parasmaipada): पठति, पठतः, पठन्ति | पठसि, पठथः, पठथ | पठामि, पठावः, पठामः.
Parasmaipada and atmanepada
Every verb root belongs to one of two sets of endings. Parasmaipada ("word for another") roots such as पठ्, गम्, भू use endings like -ति, -तः, -न्ति. Atmanepada ("word for oneself") roots such as लभ्, सेव्, वन्द् use endings like -ते, -एते, -न्ते.
लभ् present: लभते, लभेते, लभन्ते | लभसे, लभेथे, लभध्वे | लभे, लभावहे, लभामहे.
The root decides the pada. You cannot choose it. Learn the pada together with the root, just as you learn the gender of a noun.
Try it
Predict, then check. In the 3D, set the word to राम and predict the 3rd case plural before you tap. Then tap and compare. Next, write the 9 present-tense forms of गम् (गच्छ-): गच्छति, गच्छतः, गच्छन्ति | गच्छसि, गच्छथः, गच्छथ | गच्छामि, गच्छावः, गच्छामः. At home, say one sentence aloud with a family member as the doer: "रामः गृहं गच्छति", then change the doer to two people: "रामौ गृहं गच्छतः".
Key formulas and definitions
- Word = stem + ending
- Noun: 7 cases x 3 numbers = 21 forms
- Verb (one lakara, one pada): 3 persons x 3 numbers = 9 forms
- Persons: प्रथम (he/she/it), मध्यम (you), उत्तम (I/we)
- Five lakaras: लट् present, लङ् past, लृट् future, लोट् order, विधिलिङ् should/may
Worked examples
1. Write राम in the 3rd case, singular, and say what it means.
रामेण. It means "by Rama" or "with Rama". Example: रामेण फलं खाद्यते (the fruit is eaten by Rama).
2. Make the present tense, 3rd person plural, of पठ् (parasmaipada).
Take the stem पठ and add -न्ति: पठन्ति (they read).
3. Change बालकः पठति (the boy reads) so that it says "the boys read" and "the two boys read".
Two boys: बालकौ पठतः. Many boys: बालकाः पठन्ति. Both the noun and the verb change to the same number.
4. Write the past tense (लङ्) of गम् for "I went".
Stem अगच्छ + ending -म्: अगच्छम्. (Past tense adds अ- in front of the root.)
5. Which pada is लभते? Give the 2nd person singular present.
लभते is atmanepada. The 2nd person singular present is लभसे (you get).
6. Form: "he will read" and "let him read".
Future: पठिष्यति. Order (लोट्): पठतु.
Common mistakes
- Mixing numbers: using a singular verb with a plural noun. बालकाः पठति is wrong; it must be बालकाः पठन्ति.
- Forgetting that cases 3, 4 and 5 share the dual form -आभ्याम् and cases 4 and 5 share the plural -एभ्यः, then wasting time learning extra forms.
- Forgetting the extra अ- in the past tense (लङ्): it is अपठत्, not पठत्.
- Giving a parasmaipada ending to an atmanepada root: लभति is wrong, लभते is right.