Japan 中学3年 Social Studies: Civics Field

1. Modern society

Features of today's Japan: ageing, information society, globalisation · Culture: meaning and influence, tradition and creation · Frameworks: conflict and agreement, efficiency and fairness · Individual dignity, equality of sexes, contracts and rules

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2. Economy

Consumer life and meaning of economic activity · Market economy: price setting and resource allocation · Production and finance systems · Labour rights, unions, Labour Standards Act · Government role: infrastructure, environment, social security, consumer protection · Public finance and taxation

• Demand, Supply and Market Equilibrium – The law of demand says buyers want less when the price rises; the law of supply says sellers offer more. The market price settles at equilibrium, where quantity demanded equals quantity supplied, and shifts in demand or supply move it. Some goods break the usual laws (Giffen, Veblen, panic buying). A price ceiling set below equilibrium causes shortages. Markets can also fail, for example with pollution or public goods like street lights, so the government steps in.
• Money and Credit – Money is a medium of exchange that removes the need for a double coincidence of wants. Banks take deposits and give loans. Credit can help people grow, or trap them in debt, depending on its terms. Formal loans from banks and cooperatives are cheaper and regulated; informal loans from moneylenders are costly. Self-Help Groups bring cheap credit to poor women.
• Taxation: Types of Taxes and How to Calculate Them – A tax is money people and businesses must pay to the government. The government uses it for public goods (roads, schools, hospitals, defence), to help poorer people and to manage the economy. Direct taxes are paid straight from income or wealth (income tax, corporate tax, property tax). Indirect taxes are added to the price of goods and services (GST, VAT, excise, customs). A tax is progressive if richer people pay a bigger share of income, proportional (flat) if all pay the same share, and regressive if poorer people pay a bigger share. Income tax often uses slabs: each slab of income has its own rate. Effective rate = total tax ÷ income × 100.

3. Politics

Human rights and rule of law · Principles of the Constitution: rights, popular sovereignty, pacifism · Emperor as symbol and constitutional duties · Diet-centred democracy, parties, elections · Parliamentary democracy and majority rule · Courts and fair trials (incl. lay judges) · Local self-government

• Human Rights: Meaning, History, Types and Protection – Human rights are the basic freedoms and protections that belong to every person because they are human. They are universal, inalienable, indivisible and rooted in dignity. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) set a common standard, later made binding through treaties. Rights are protected by constitutions, courts, commissions, the UN and civil society, and they can be limited only by fair laws that protect others.
• Elections in India – Elections let crores of people choose representatives and peacefully change governments. India uses first-past-the-post for Lok Sabha and state assemblies, and a form of proportional representation for Rajya Sabha and the President. Delimitation makes constituencies roughly equal in population. The independent Election Commission prepares voter lists and conducts polls. India has a multi-party system, coalition governments are common, and the anti-defection law stops elected members from switching parties.
• Democracy – Democracy is rule by the people. People choose their rulers in free and fair elections, each adult has one vote of equal value, and the government must follow the law and respect rights. Democracy can be direct or representative. India has old democratic roots and today uses a parliamentary system, while the USA uses a presidential system. Poverty, illiteracy, corruption and inequality are its main challenges.
• Outcomes of Democracy – Democracy is judged by what it delivers. It gives an accountable, responsive and legitimate government, and it is best at protecting dignity and freedom. On economic growth it is about as good as dictatorship. It has not done enough to cut inequality and poverty. It handles social differences well when majority and minority keep changing.
• Separation of Powers – Separation of powers means dividing the power of the state into three branches: the legislature makes laws, the executive carries them out, and the judiciary interprets laws and settles disputes. Different people hold each branch. Through checks and balances, each branch can limit the others, so no one becomes all-powerful. Parliamentary systems join the legislature and executive more closely; presidential systems keep them more apart. Power is also shared between national, regional and local levels.
• Local Governments – Local governments bring democracy to the village and town level, where people know their own problems best. Local bodies existed in India since 1882 but stayed weak for decades. The 73rd (rural) and 74th (urban) Amendments of 1992 gave panchayats and municipalities constitutional status, regular elections, reservation for women, SC and ST, and a list of subjects and funds.

4. International society

International cooperation, UN, mutual respect of sovereignty · Global issues: environment, resources/energy, poverty · Towards a better society: final inquiry essay

• Global Issues and International Cooperation – Global issues are problems that cross borders and affect everyone: climate change and pollution, shrinking resources and energy, poverty and hunger, and a growing population needing food and housing. No single country can fix them alone. Nations cooperate through agreements (such as the Montreal Protocol and the Paris Agreement), aid, shared technology and the United Nations' 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for 2030. People can also help by saving energy, wasting less and choosing fair products.