CBSE Class 8 Social Science (Exploring Society: India and Beyond)

Chapters: 15

1. Natural Resources and Their Use

Resources

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13th–17th century polities

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Maratha power

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Colonial rule

Colonialism in India: From Traders to Rulers – Colonialism means one country takes control of another land and uses its people and wealth for its own gain. European companies came to India to trade around 1600. The English East India Company built forts and an army, won the battles of Plassey (1757) and Buxar (1764), and got the right to collect tax in Bengal (1765). It then ruled large parts of India. Indian raw materials and money flowed to Britain, while British machine cloth flooded Indian markets, so many weavers and artisans lost work. The British also brought English schools, railways and new laws, mostly to serve their own rule. After the revolt of 1857 the British Crown ruled India directly until India became free in 1947.

Elections

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Parliament and government

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Production

Factors of Production: Land, Labour, Capital and Enterprise – Factors of production are the resources used to make goods and services. There are four: land (natural resources, rewarded with rent), labour (human effort, rewarded with wages), capital (man-made tools and machines, rewarded with interest) and enterprise (organising the others and taking risk, rewarded with profit). Because wants are unlimited but these resources are scarce, every society must choose what to produce, how and for whom. The purpose of economic activity is to satisfy as many wants as possible.

Continents and oceans

World Geography: Continents, Oceans and Regions of the World – Earth is split by the equator into Northern and Southern Hemispheres and by the prime meridian into Eastern and Western Hemispheres. Latitude sets the climate zones: tropical, temperate and polar. There are seven continents (Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, Oceania) and five oceans (Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern, Arctic), which cover about 71% of Earth. Geographers group countries into world regions, each with physical features (mountains, rivers, deserts, climate) and human features (population, cities, languages, economy). Today the big world trends are population growth, city growth, climate change and the shift of economic weight towards Asia.

Freedom struggle

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Indian architecture

Indian Architecture: Stupas, Temples, Domes and Forts – Indian buildings use two basic ways to cover a gap: flat beams on posts (trabeate, post and lintel) and arches and domes (arcuate). Stupas are solid half-domes built over relics. Hindu temples grew into the Nagara style (curved shikhara, north) and the Dravida style (stepped vimana and gopuram, south), with a mixed Vesara style in between. Mosques and tombs brought the true arch, the big dome, minarets and charbagh gardens. Forts used thick walls, bastions, gates and moats. Towns were planned from Harappan grid streets to Jaipur. These buildings are our heritage and need care today.

Judiciary

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Citizenship

Civics and Government: How Citizens and Governments Work Together – Civics is the study of how people govern themselves and how citizens take part. In a democracy, power comes from the people, who choose representatives in free elections. Government has three branches: the legislature makes laws, the executive carries them out and the judiciary checks they follow the constitution. Most countries also have levels of government (local, state or provincial, national), each with its own jobs. A law starts as an idea, becomes a bill, is debated and voted on, and gets final approval. Citizens have rights, such as free speech and voting, and responsibilities, such as obeying laws and respecting others. Active citizens stay informed, vote, volunteer and work peacefully for change.

Demography

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Urbanisation

Urbanisation: Why Cities Grow and How to Make Them Work – Urbanisation is the rise in the share of a country's or the world's people who live in towns and cities. In 1950 about 30% of the world was urban; since 2007 more than half is, and about 68% is expected by 2050. Cities grow by rural–urban migration (push factors from the countryside, pull factors to the city) and by natural increase. Today the fastest growth is in lower-income and newly emerging countries of Asia and Africa, where megacities of 10 million or more are forming; in many rich countries growth is slow and people also move out to suburbs (suburbanisation and counter-urbanisation). Fast growth brings opportunities (jobs, services) and problems (informal housing, traffic, pollution, waste, flooding, the urban heat island). Sustainable urban development tries to fix these with public transport, green spaces, clean water, recycling, affordable housing and renewable energy.

Cultural trends

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