Russia 8 класс Social Studies

Chapters: 2

1. Human in economic relations

Economic life · Production and entrepreneurship · Exchange, money, market · Firms and financial markets · Households · Economic role of the state

The Problem of Choice: Scarcity and Opportunity Cost – Our wants are unlimited but resources like money, time, land and workers are limited. This is scarcity, and it forces us to choose. The value of the next best option we give up is the opportunity cost. Economists study how people and societies make these choices. Every society must decide what, how and for whom to produce. Market, planned and mixed economies answer these differently, and a welfare state makes sure basic needs of all are met.
From Ideas to Startups: Entrepreneurship – An entrepreneur turns an idea into a business by bringing together land, labour and capital and taking the risk. New ideas replace old ways, which economists call creative destruction. Startups grow with help from investors, banks, incubators, government schemes such as Startup India and Make in India, and small firms called MSMEs. A business plan maps the idea, costs and customers. The profit and loss statement shows Sales − Costs, and the balance sheet shows Assets = Liabilities + Capital.
Entrepreneurship Development – Entrepreneurship is starting a new business by spotting a need, putting resources together and taking the risk. India needs entrepreneurs for jobs, new ideas and balanced growth. The process runs from knowing yourself to launching and growing. Start-up India (2016) supports new firms, funding comes from savings, angels, venture capital, banks and crowdfunding, and intellectual property rights protect new ideas, brands and creative work.
Demand, Supply and Market Equilibrium – The law of demand says buyers want less when the price rises; the law of supply says sellers offer more. The market price settles at equilibrium, where quantity demanded equals quantity supplied, and shifts in demand or supply move it. Some goods break the usual laws (Giffen, Veblen, panic buying). A price ceiling set below equilibrium causes shortages. Markets can also fail, for example with pollution or public goods like street lights, so the government steps in.
Smart Ways to Manage Your Finances – Inflation makes prices rise, so the same money buys less. Money kept in a bank earns interest: simple interest is paid only on the original amount, while compound interest also earns interest on earlier interest, so it grows faster over time. A budget plans income into needs, wants and savings. Savings are kept safe; investments can grow but carry risk, and higher possible returns mean higher risk. Insurance shares risk among many people. Income tax is paid on income above a limit, at rates that rise with income.

2. Human in the world of culture

Culture · Science and education · Religion · Art · Information technology and safety

Cyber Crime and Cyber Safety – Cyber crime is any crime that uses a computer, phone or the internet as a tool or target. Common forms: hacking (breaking into a system without permission; ethical hackers test security with permission), eavesdropping (secretly intercepting communication), phishing (fake emails, SMS or websites that trick you into giving passwords, OTPs or card details), ransomware (malware that locks or encrypts files and demands money), cyber trolls (people who post provoking, offensive messages) and cyberbullying (harassing, threatening or humiliating someone online). Malware includes viruses (attach to files and spread), worms (spread by themselves), trojans (look useful but open a back door), spyware and adware (unwanted pop-up ads, often tracking). Safe browsing: https sites, updated software, antivirus and firewall, no unknown links or downloads. Identity protection: strong unique passwords, two-factor authentication, never sharing OTPs, careful sharing of personal details, and logging out on shared devices.