Netherlands VWO 2 (onderbouw) History

1. Ten eras (part 1)

Hunters and farmers to Greeks and Romans · Monks and knights; cities and states · Explorers and reformers; regents and monarchs · Prehistory to early modern period (adopted, legal 2027) · Using historical sources

• Early Humans and the Beginning of Civilisation – Modern humans (Homo sapiens) first appeared in Africa about 3 lakh years ago and slowly spread across the world, reaching India tens of thousands of years ago. Historians split this long past into ages by the tools people used: Palaeolithic (old stone), Mesolithic (middle stone, tiny tools), Neolithic (new stone, farming), then copper, bronze and iron. When people learned farming, they settled in villages, stored grain and made pots. Some villages grew into planned cities, like the Harappan cities on the Indus and Ghaggar rivers. At about the same time, river-valley civilisations rose in Mesopotamia, Egypt and China.
• Medieval Europe: A Thousand Years from Rome to the Renaissance – The Middle Ages in Europe lasted about 1,000 years, from the end of the Western Roman Empire (476 CE) to around 1500. In the early period, migrating peoples set up new kingdoms in the west, the Franks grew strong under Charlemagne, and the Byzantine Empire carried on Roman rule in the east. Society was organised by feudalism: land given in return for loyalty and service. The Church shaped daily life through monasteries, cathedrals and the crusades. From about 1000, trade revived, towns, guilds and universities grew, and kings gained power. In the 1300s the Black Death and long wars brought a crisis that helped end the medieval world.
• The Early Modern Period: How the World Changed from 1450 to 1800 – The early modern period runs from about 1450 to 1800, between the Middle Ages and the modern age. Printing spread ideas fast. Ocean voyages joined the continents through trade and colonies. The Reformation split Western Christianity. Big empires and new kinds of states grew. The Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment changed how people thought about nature, rulers and rights.
• Source Analysis: How Historians Judge Evidence – A source is any trace of the past that gives us evidence: a letter, a coin, a building, a song, a photo or a video. Primary sources come from the time being studied; secondary sources are later accounts, such as books by historians. To analyse a source, ask about its provenance (who made it, when, why and for whom), read its content against what you already know, look for bias, and decide how reliable and how useful it is for your question. Historians check sources against each other (corroboration) and read different scholars' interpretations before writing a reasoned commentary or essay.