Why we use levels
A text is too big to look at all at once. So linguists split language into levels. You look at one level, collect what you notice, then move up. At the end you join the notes into one clear idea about the text.
The six levels are: sounds, writing, words, grammar, meaning in use, whole text.
Sounds: phonetics, phonology and prosody
Phonetics studies the speech sounds. Phonology studies how a language arranges its sounds, for example which sounds can sit next to each other. Prosody is the music of speech: pitch (high or low), loudness, speed, stress and pauses.
- A rising tone at the end often shows a question.
- A stretched vowel ("sooo") shows strong feeling.
- Rhyme and repeated sounds (alliteration) make poems and adverts easy to remember.
Writing: graphology
Graphology is how language looks on the page or screen: spelling, capital letters, punctuation, font, colour, layout, emoji and pictures.
Ask: why is this word in capitals? Why is the text in a box? Who would write "gr8" instead of "great"?
Words: lexis and semantics
Lexis means the choice of words. Semantics is what the words mean.
- Denotation is the plain meaning ("home" = where you live). Connotation is the feeling around it ("home" feels warm).
- Formal or informal words, slang, jargon (special words of one job), and word fields (many words on one topic).
- Synonyms (same meaning), antonyms (opposite), and hyponyms ("rose" is a kind of "flower").
Grammar: syntax and morphology
Morphology looks inside words: the root and its parts, like un-happy, play-ed, teach-er. Syntax looks at how words join into phrases, clauses and sentences.
- Sentence type: statement, question, command, exclamation.
- Simple sentence (one idea), compound (ideas joined by "and", "but"), complex (one idea depends on another).
- Word classes: noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pronoun.
- Voice: "The dog bit the boy" (active) or "The boy was bitten" (passive hides who did it).
Pragmatics: meaning in use
Pragmatics is about what people mean, not only what they say. "Can you pass the salt?" is not a question about your ability. It is a request.
- Politeness: softeners like "please" and "could you" protect the other person's feelings.
- Implied meaning: "It is cold in here" may mean "close the window".
- Context: who, where, when and why changes the meaning.
Discourse: the whole text
Discourse looks at how a longer stretch of speech or writing holds together and who it is for.
- Cohesion: joining words such as "however", "so", "then" and repeated words.
- Structure: opening, middle, ending; or turns in a conversation (taking turns, interrupting, overlapping).
- Audience, purpose and genre: a text for a friend, a boss or a crowd is written differently.
How to write a good analysis
Use three steps: Point (what you notice), Evidence (a short quote), Effect (why it matters to the reader). Example: "The speaker uses the word snatched (point). It sounds sudden and rough (effect), so we feel the theft was violent."
Try it
In the 3D, choose the sentence about the window and go through all six levels. Then try the texting sentence. At home, take any WhatsApp message and write one line for each level. Do the same for a short advert.
Key formulas and definitions
- Levels: Sounds โ Writing โ Words โ Grammar โ Meaning in use โ Whole text
- Phonology = sound system; prosody = pitch, stress, pace, pauses
- Graphology = spelling, punctuation, layout, font, emoji
- Lexis = word choice; semantics = meaning; denotation vs connotation
- Morphology = parts of words; syntax = sentence structure
- Pragmatics = implied meaning, politeness, context; discourse = cohesion, structure, audience
- Write: Point + Evidence + Effect
Worked examples
1. Analyse the lexis of the headline "Heroes rescue trapped miners".
"Heroes" has a strong positive connotation. "Rescue" shows saving, and "trapped" makes us feel worry. The word choice makes readers admire the rescuers and pity the miners.
2. What does the grammar tell you in "Mistakes were made"?
It is a passive sentence. It hides who made the mistakes. A speaker may use it to avoid blame.
3. A shopkeeper says "It is getting late." What is the pragmatic meaning?
On the surface it is a statement about time. In context it probably means "please leave, I want to close the shop". The meaning is implied.
Common mistakes
- Listing features without saying their effect. Always add why it matters.
- Mixing levels: calling a sentence type "lexis". Grammar is structure; lexis is word choice.
- Thinking denotation and connotation are the same. One is the plain meaning, the other is the feeling.
- Ignoring context. The same words can mean different things in different places.