Natural fires
Forest, grass and peat fires need three things: fuel, heat and oxygen. Wind and uphill slopes make fire run much faster. People cause most of them.
- Never leave a campfire. Put it out with water, stir, add water again and feel that it is cold.
- Do not throw cigarettes or glass in dry forests.
- If you see a fire, call 112 and leave sideways to bare, burnt or wet ground. Do not run uphill or with the wind.
- Cover your mouth with a wet cloth in smoke. Close windows at home.
See the lesson on nature safety for the 3D of how a fire spreads.
Avalanches
An avalanche is a mass of snow that slides down a mountain slope.
Why it happens
- A slope of about 30 to 45 degrees is the most dangerous. Gentler slopes hold the snow, much steeper ones shed it often.
- A lot of fresh snow, wind that piles snow up, or a sudden warm spell or rain.
- A weak layer under the snow. A skier or a loud noise can trigger the slide.
Staying safe
- Read the avalanche warning and avoid steep slopes after heavy snow.
- Cross a risky slope one person at a time. Others watch from a safe place.
- Carry a beacon, a probe and a shovel, and know how to use them.
If caught
- Shout, drop heavy things and try to "swim" to stay near the top.
- As the snow slows, put a hand in front of your face to make an air pocket and push an arm up.
If a friend is buried
Watch where they disappear, call 112, and search at once with beacon, probe and shovel. The first 15 minutes matter most.
Mudflows and landslides
A landslide is soil or rock sliding down a slope. A mudflow is a fast stream of water, mud and stones in a mountain valley.
Causes
- Heavy rain or fast snow melt soak the soil, making it heavy and slippery.
- Steep slopes, cutting hills for roads, and removing trees (roots hold soil).
- Earthquakes and heavy vibrations.
Warning signs
- New cracks in the ground, leaning poles or trees, doors that stick.
- Muddy water in a stream that was clear, or a sudden rumble and smell of earth.
What to do
- Move quickly to higher, stable ground. In a mudflow valley, climb the valley side at a right angle to the flow, not along the channel.
- Avoid river beds and the bottom of steep slopes in heavy rain.
- After it stops, stay away. More material can follow. Call 112.
Ice safety
Ice looks strong but can be weak. Thickness is a rough guide: about 10 cm for one person on foot, 15 cm or more for groups or skating. Clear blue ice is stronger than white, snowy or grey ice.
Avoid
- Early winter and spring thaw, when ice is thinning.
- Places with flowing water, springs, reeds, bridge posts or outflow pipes.
- Going alone. Never let a child play on a lake without an adult.
If you fall through
- Do not panic. Cold shock passes in about a minute.
- Turn toward the way you came, spread your arms on the ice and kick your legs to lift your body flat.
- Crawl out and roll away. Do not stand up at once.
- Warm up fast in a dry, warm place and call 112 if cold.
If someone else falls
Lie down flat and push or throw a rope, stick or scarf. Shout for help and call 112. Do not walk to them.
Drowning and water rescue
Drowning is quiet. A drowning person often cannot shout or wave; they may just look as if they are climbing a ladder in the water.
Prevent it
- Swim only in safe, supervised places. Never swim alone, after food or after alcohol.
- Watch small children within arm's reach near any water, even a bucket.
- Wear a life jacket on boats. Learn to float on your back.
- Cold water can steal your strength in minutes.
Help without becoming the next victim
- Reach: lie down and hold out a stick or branch, within about 3 m.
- Throw: a ring, rope, bottle or cooler within about 20 m.
- Don't go: do not swim out. Call 112 and keep watching.
After rescue
Check breathing. If not breathing and you are trained, give rescue breaths and chest compressions until help comes. Keep the person warm and on their side if breathing.
Try it
- In the 3D find the angle and snow where the avalanche starts.
- With rain at 6, switch trees on and off. What changes?
- Find the ice thickness where the person falls in.
- Find the distance where reach changes to throw, and throw changes to call 112.
Key formulas and definitions
- Avalanche risk: slope about 30-45° + fresh or wind-piled snow
- Ice: at least 10 cm for one person, 15 cm for groups or skating
- Water rescue: REACH, THROW, DON'T GO, call 112
- Fire: needs fuel + heat + oxygen
Worked examples
1. A slope is 25 degrees with heavy fresh snow. A second slope is 38 degrees with a thin old layer. Which is more likely to avalanche, and why?
Neither is certain, but the 38 degree slope is in the dangerous 30 to 45 range. Heavy fresh snow on a 25 degree slope can still slide in some conditions, so check warnings. The safest choice is to avoid steep slopes after snowfall.
2. Ice on a pond is 8 cm thick. Four friends want to play on it. What do you say?
8 cm is below the 10 cm needed for one person, and groups need 15 cm or more. Do not go on the ice. Stay on the shore.
3. A child is 12 m from the shore in a pond and you are on the bank with a rope. What do you do?
12 m is within throwing range (about 20 m). Throw the rope or a ring so it lands beyond the child, shout to hold it, pull slowly, and call 112. Do not swim out.
Common mistakes
- Jumping in to save a drowning person. You may become the second victim. Reach, throw, don't go.
- Thinking ice that held yesterday is safe today. Weather changes thickness.
- Running along the river channel to escape a mudflow. Climb sideways up the valley wall instead.
- Crossing an avalanche slope in a group together. Cross one at a time.