Why the wars started: the 1450s
In 1450 England had many problems at once:
- A weak king. Henry VI was kind and religious but bad at making decisions. In 1453 he had a mental breakdown and could not speak or act for over a year.
- Defeat in France. Normandy was lost in 1450 and nearly all French land by 1453. Soldiers came home angry and blamed the king's advisers.
- No money. The crown owed huge debts, so it could not pay its servants or reward loyalty.
- Over-mighty nobles. Great lords had their own armed followers (this system is called bastard feudalism: lords paid men in money or favours to serve them). Local feuds, like Percy against Neville in the north, became violent.
- Unpopular favourites. Advisers such as Somerset and the queen, Margaret of Anjou, controlled the court. Richard, Duke of York, felt left out.
In 1450 Jack Cade led a rebellion of Kent people who complained about bad government. York became Protector during the king's illness (1454–55). When Henry recovered, York lost power and turned to force.
The war of the barons, 1459–1461
The first battle at St Albans (1455) killed Somerset. After a few tense years, open war began in 1459. York's side fled, then came back. In the Act of Accord (1460) Parliament agreed that York would become king after Henry VI, cutting out Henry's own son. Queen Margaret refused this. Her army killed York at Wakefield (1460).
York's son Edward, with the help of the Earl of Warwick, took London and was declared king. At Towton (1461), in a snowstorm, he won one of the biggest battles ever fought in England. He became Edward IV, the first Yorkist king.
Triumph of York and Warwick the Kingmaker, 1461–1471
Edward IV slowly won control. Henry VI was captured in 1465. But Edward and Warwick fell out:
- Edward secretly married Elizabeth Woodville (1464), while Warwick was planning a French marriage for him.
- The queen's many relatives got rich marriages and jobs, which Warwick hated.
- Edward chose friendship with Burgundy, while Warwick wanted friendship with France.
Warwick rebelled, joined Queen Margaret and put Henry VI back on the throne in 1470 (the Readeption). Edward fled abroad, returned, and won at Barnet (where Warwick died) and Tewkesbury (1471), where Henry's son died. Henry VI died in the Tower soon after. The House of Lancaster was finished.
Edward IV's second reign and the fall of York, 1471–1486
Edward's badge was the sun in splendour. From 1471 to 1483 he gave England peace. He built up royal money through his own lands, trade and a pension paid by France (Treaty of Picquigny, 1475). He trusted loyal men in each region, like his brother Richard in the north. One weakness: his brother George, Duke of Clarence, plotted and was executed in 1478.
When Edward died in 1483, his son Edward V was 12. Their uncle Richard took charge, declared the boys illegitimate and became Richard III. The two princes in the Tower disappeared, and many believed they were killed. Buckingham's rebellion (1483) failed, but many southern Yorkists fled to Henry Tudor. At Bosworth (1485) some lords, like the Stanleys, did not fight for Richard, and he was killed.
Henry VII and the end of the wars, 1485–1499
Henry VII's claim to the throne was weak, so he worked hard to secure it:
- He married Elizabeth of York (1486), joining the two families. The Tudor rose shows red and white together.
- He beat the pretender Lambert Simnel at Stoke (1487), the last real battle of the wars.
- He dealt with Perkin Warbeck, who claimed to be one of the lost princes, and executed him in 1499.
- He made nobles promise good behaviour with money bonds, and he kept the crown rich.
By 1499 the Tudor dynasty was safe.
Try it: track the crown
Draw a line from 1450 to 1500 on paper. Mark every year the crown changed hands: 1461, 1470, 1471, 1483, 1485. Colour each part red (Lancaster), white (York) or green (Tudor). Then use the 3D slider to check your line.
Key formulas and definitions
- Lancaster = red rose (Henry VI)
- York = white rose (Edward IV, Richard III)
- Tudor rose = red + white (Henry VII + Elizabeth of York)
- Bastard feudalism = lords pay followers in money and favours, not land
- Kingmaker = Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick
- Readeption = Henry VI's short return, 1470–71
Worked examples
1. Explain two causes of the conflict in the 1450s.
1) Henry VI was a weak king who could not control his nobles or advisers, and his illness in 1453 left a gap in power. 2) Losing France brought anger, debt and blame on the king's favourites such as Somerset. Together these made York believe he had to use force.
2. Why did Warwick turn against Edward IV?
Edward married Elizabeth Woodville in secret, ruining Warwick's French marriage plan. Edward then rewarded the Woodvilles and chose Burgundy over France. Warwick felt he had lost influence, so he rebelled and joined Margaret of Anjou.
3. How far was Richard III's fall his own fault?
His own actions mattered most: taking the crown from his nephew and the princes' disappearance split the Yorkists. But other factors helped: French support for Henry Tudor, and the Stanleys' refusal to fight for him at Bosworth. A balanced answer: mainly his own fault, made fatal by others' choices.
Common mistakes
- Thinking the wars were one long war. They were short bursts of fighting between long peaceful periods.
- Thinking people at the time called them the 'Wars of the Roses'. The name became popular much later.
- Mixing up Edward IV (king 1461–70, 1471–83) with his son Edward V (1483, never crowned).
- Thinking Henry VII's win at Bosworth ended all danger. Rebellions and pretenders went on until 1499.