From the Spring and Autumn to the Warring States
In 770 BCE, after the Zhou capital moved east, the king became weak. Lords now ran their lands as they liked. This is called the Spring and Autumn period (770 to 476 BCE), after a chronicle of the time. There were dozens of states. The strongest lords held meetings and tried to lead the others in the name of the king.
Lords began to fight for land, and the stronger ones took over the weaker. By about 475 BCE, the age of the Warring States began (475 to 221 BCE). Seven big states stood out: Qin, Chu, Qi, Yan, Han, Zhao and Wei. Wars became larger, with big armies of foot soldiers instead of a few nobles on chariots.
Why states could grow: iron and farming
From about 500 BCE, iron spread. Iron tools are harder and cheaper than bronze, so more farmers could have a plough blade or a spade. Farmers also used oxen to pull ploughs and built irrigation canals.
More food meant more people and more taxes, and so bigger armies. States that used iron and farming well could grow strong. This is why the 3D shows two harvest bars.
The Hundred Schools of Thought
A time of constant war made thinkers ask big questions: What is a good ruler? How can we have peace? Many teachers travelled from state to state and gave advice. Later people called this the Hundred Schools of Thought ('hundred' means 'many'). Four main schools:
- Confucians (Confucius, Mencius, Xunzi): a good state comes from good people. Rule by kindness, learning and good example.
- Daoists (Laozi, Zhuangzi): follow the natural way. A wise ruler does little and does not force things.
- Mohists (Mozi): love everyone equally, avoid waste, and oppose wars of attack, though defence is right.
- Legalists (Shang Yang, Han Fei): people follow clear laws, strong rewards and strict punishment, not sermons. The law must apply to everyone.
There were other schools too, such as the strategists (Sun Tzu's art of war), the Yin-Yang thinkers and the School of Names. The rulers listened to different ones, depending on what they needed.
Shang Yang's reforms in Qin
Shang Yang was a Legalist adviser to Duke Xiao of Qin. He made reforms from about 356 BCE. Qin was then a less developed western state, and the reforms made it much stronger.
- Reward farming: farmers who grew more grain or cloth could be rewarded, and idlers were punished. This raised food and taxes.
- Rank for service: people got rank and land for service in the army, not just because of their family. Nobles without service lost privileges. This made soldiers work hard for the state.
- One law for all: laws were clear and public, and the same rules applied to everyone, including nobles. Neighbours were grouped so that they watched one another. Officials, not hereditary lords, ran the new counties.
The reforms made the government stronger and the army more loyal. Many historians say they were one of the reasons Qin finally defeated the other states in 221 BCE. Shang Yang had many enemies, and after the duke's death he was put to death. But the system he built stayed.
Try it
In the 3D, tick the three reforms one by one and note the strength numbers. Which reform gives the biggest change? (They are equal in the model, but which would you think mattered most in real life, and why?) Then pick each school and write one line: would this school like Shang Yang's reforms? Why or why not?
Key formulas and definitions
- Spring and Autumn: 770–476 BCE; Warring States: 475–221 BCE
- Seven big states: Qin, Chu, Qi, Yan, Han, Zhao, Wei
- Iron tools + ox plough → more harvest → more people and bigger armies
- Shang Yang (from about 356 BCE): reward farming + rank for service + one law for all
Worked examples
1. Why did armies of foot soldiers replace small groups of nobles in chariots in the Warring States period?
Iron tools and ox ploughs raised harvests, so states could feed many more people. Rulers could therefore gather large armies of ordinary soldiers. Wars grew bigger and states needed more people and food, not just a few trained nobles.
2. A Confucian and a Legalist advise a ruler whose people steal grain. What would each suggest?
The Confucian would say: set a good example, teach people right and wrong, and take care of their needs so they do not need to steal. The Legalist would say: make clear laws with sure and strict punishment for theft and rewards for honest farming, and apply the law to everyone.
3. How did giving rank for service in war, not by birth, make Qin stronger?
Ordinary people could now rise by serving the state, so soldiers worked and fought hard. Nobles could no longer enjoy rank without service. The army became larger, more loyal to the state, and more skilled.
Common mistakes
- Thinking the Warring States period started with a single war. States merged slowly over hundreds of years.
- Thinking all schools of thought agreed with each other. Confucians and Legalists disagreed sharply on whether kindness or law should rule.
- Thinking Shang Yang's reforms alone conquered China. They helped Qin become strong, but Qin's unification in 221 BCE also had other causes, and it came about 130 years later.
- Thinking Legalists did not believe in rewards. They believed in strong rewards as well as strong punishments.