Britain under Queen Victoria
Queen Victoria ruled from 1837 to 1901. Britain was the first industrial country, with factories, coal and ships. It also had the largest empire. At home, power slowly moved to more people.
- 1832: a law gave the vote to more middle-class men.
- 1867 and 1884: more town and then country workers got the vote.
Still, women could not vote. The fight for it (the suffragettes) grew after 1900. A new trade-union and Labour movement also began. The Great Exhibition of 1851 showed British machines to the world.
France: from empire to republic
Napoleon III was emperor from 1852. Paris was rebuilt with wide streets and railways grew. But in 1870 he lost a war against Prussia and was removed. The Third Republic began. In 1871 the poor workers of Paris set up the Paris Commune, which was crushed. The republic stayed. In the 1890s the Dreyfus affair (an army officer wrongly punished) split the country about justice and prejudice. By 1905 church and state were separated.
Unification of Germany and Italy
Italy
Italy was a set of small states. Prime minister Cavour used diplomacy and the volunteer fighter Garibaldi used an army of volunteers. The kingdom of Italy began in 1861 under King Victor Emmanuel II. Venice joined in 1866 and Rome in 1870.
Germany
Prussia was the strongest of many German states. Its leader Otto von Bismarck won three short wars (against Denmark, Austria, France). In January 1871 the German Empire was announced, with the Prussian king as emperor. Germany soon became a leader in steel, chemicals and science.
Austria-Hungary
After a defeat in 1866, Austria agreed in 1867 to share power with the Hungarians. Emperor Franz Joseph ruled both. The empire had Germans, Hungarians, Czechs, Poles, Serbs, Croats, Romanians and others. Many wanted their own say or their own state. This tension was one reason the empire broke up after 1918.
The USA
The Civil War (1861-65) kept the country together and ended slavery. After it, the South was rebuilt, but Black Americans soon lost many rights. The transcontinental railway (1869) joined east and west. Steel, oil and factories grew, and millions of migrants came from Europe. By 1900 the USA had the biggest economy in the world. Reformers in the early 1900s pushed for better working rules.
Try it
In the 3D: for each country, set the slider first to the start, then to the end. Say aloud what changed.
At home: take 9 small coins or blocks. Place them wide apart (many states). Push them into one 3 x 3 square (unification). Then add a few coloured pieces on top (different peoples). Ask: is it easy to keep them all happy?
Key formulas and definitions
- Britain: Reform Acts 1832, 1867, 1884 (wider vote)
- France: Second Empire 1852-70, Third Republic 1870-1940
- Italy united 1861-70; German Empire 1871
- Austria-Hungary: Compromise of 1867
- USA: Civil War 1861-65, transcontinental railway 1869
Worked examples
1. Why was 1870 a turning point for France?
The emperor lost a war and fell, and the Third Republic began. It lasted until 1940.
2. Why was Germany's unification led by Prussia?
Prussia was the strongest state, with a big army and a clever leader, Bismarck. He won short wars and joined the states under the Prussian king.
3. Why was Austria-Hungary hard to hold together?
It had many peoples with different languages, and many wanted their own say or state. Nationalism pulled it apart.
4. How did the railway help the USA grow?
It joined east and west, moved goods and settlers cheaply, and helped factories and farms sell far away.
Common mistakes
- Thinking Britain was a republic. It stayed a monarchy; Parliament had the real power.
- Mixing the years: Italy 1861-70, Germany 1871, France republic 1870.
- Saying all adults could vote in 1884 Britain. Women and many poor men could not.
- Forgetting that Austria-Hungary was two parts under one emperor.