What is a state, and who holds the power?
A state is a country with a government that makes laws, collects taxes and has an army. In 1500 most European states were ruled by a monarch (a king or queen). There were two main ways to rule:
- Absolute monarchy: the ruler has almost all the power and no parliament can stop him.
- Parliamentary (limited) monarchy: the ruler shares power with a parliament, which agrees to taxes and makes laws.
In the 3D, gold cubes show the ruler's power and blue cubes show the power of others.
Spain: rich but over-stretched
In the 1500s Spain was the strongest state in Europe. Its kings (Charles V, then Philip II, who ruled 1556–1598) ruled Spain, parts of Italy, the Netherlands and a huge empire in the Americas. Silver from American mines poured into Spain. But the kings spent it on wars against rivals and on defending the Catholic Church, and they borrowed money again and again. In 1588 the great Spanish fleet, the Armada, was sent against England and was badly beaten by storms and English ships. Slowly Spain lost its lead.
The revolt of the Netherlands
The Netherlands (a rich region of towns and traders) was under the Spanish king. People disliked the heavy taxes and the king's strict religious rules, because many of them had become Protestants. In 1566 unrest began, and a long war followed. In 1581 the northern provinces declared that they no longer obeyed the Spanish king. Spain accepted the independence of the Dutch Republic only in 1648. The Dutch Republic had no king: cities and provinces ruled together, and trade made it very rich. Amsterdam became a great trading port.
France: the king takes all the power
In the 1500s France suffered long wars between Catholics and Protestants. They ended when King Henry IV issued the Edict of Nantes in 1598, which gave Protestants some rights. Later ministers such as Cardinal Richelieu made the king's government strong. King Louis XIV (ruled 1643–1715) took this to the top. He controlled the army, the taxes and the officials, and he did not call the old assembly of the nobles and towns. He built the great palace of Versailles and kept the nobles busy at court. France became the model of absolutism.
England under the Tudors, then Parliament
The Tudor family ruled England from 1485 to 1603. Henry VII made the crown rich and safe. Henry VIII broke with the Pope and made himself head of the English Church. Elizabeth I (1558–1603) kept peace in religion, defeated the Armada and ruled with the help of Parliament. The Tudors were strong, but they needed Parliament to agree to taxes. Later kings quarrelled with Parliament, and after the Glorious Revolution of 1689 the Bill of Rights set limits on the king. England became a parliamentary monarchy. (The Civil War and Cromwell have their own lesson.)
The 1700s: Prussia and the Habsburgs
In the 1700s some rulers read the ideas of the Enlightenment (reason, learning, fair laws) and made reforms, but kept all the power. This is called enlightened absolutism.
- Prussia: King Frederick II (ruled 1740–1786) built a strong army and an efficient government, allowed freedom of religion and improved the courts.
- Habsburg monarchy (Austria): Maria Theresa (1740–1780) reformed taxes and schools. Her son Joseph II (ruled alone 1780–1790) ended serfdom for many peasants and gave religious toleration.
These rulers said they ruled for the good of the people, but the people did not get a vote.
Try it: compare with the cubes
Use the buttons in the 3D to jump between states and years. Count the gold and blue cubes. Which state had the fewest gold cubes? Which had all ten? Draw your own cube chart for your school or your family and say who holds the cubes.
Key formulas and definitions
- Absolute monarchy = ruler holds nearly all power
- Parliamentary monarchy = ruler shares power with a parliament
- Enlightened absolutism = reforms from above, the ruler keeps control
- Key dates: Armada 1588, Dutch independence declared 1581 (recognised 1648), Edict of Nantes 1598, Louis XIV 1643–1715, Glorious Revolution 1689, Frederick II 1740–1786
Worked examples
1. Why was Spain, though rich in silver, not able to keep its lead?
The kings spent the silver on long wars and borrowed more, so the money was gone. Other states built trade and stronger finances.
2. Why did the Netherlands revolt against Spain?
Heavy taxes, the king's strict religious rules (many Dutch were Protestants) and the loss of local rights made the people angry.
3. How did Louis XIV show absolute power?
He controlled the army, taxes and officials, did not call the old assembly, and made nobles live at Versailles under his eye.
4. What is the main difference between France and England in the 1700s?
In France the king held almost all power (absolute monarchy). In England, after 1689, Parliament had more power than the king (parliamentary monarchy).
5. What is enlightened absolutism? Give one example.
A ruler makes reforms with the help of ideas of reason and learning but keeps all power. Frederick II of Prussia, who improved courts and allowed religious freedom while ruling alone, is an example.
6. In the cube model Spain had 8 gold cubes. How many blue cubes had the others? What does the number tell you?
10 − 8 = 2 blue cubes. The king held most of the power, so Spain was close to absolute rule.
Common mistakes
- Mixing up the types: absolute monarchy = ruler alone; parliamentary monarchy = ruler plus parliament.
- Thinking 'enlightened' means the people ruled. The ruler still held all the power.
- Mixing dates: Armada 1588, Dutch declaration 1581, Glorious Revolution 1689.
- Thinking Spain was poor. It was very rich but spent the money on wars.